Classical Dance Forms of India
Natyashastra, the Eight Schools & their Exponents

The Natyashastra — Theoretical Foundation

All Indian classical dance forms trace their theoretical foundation to the Natyashastra, the ancient treatise on performing arts attributed to the sage Bharata Muni (composed approximately 200 BCE – 200 CE). The Natyashastra codifies every element of performance: body positions (karanas), hand gestures (mudras/hastas), facial expressions (navarasas), compositional elements, musical accompaniment, and stage conventions. The text defines drama and dance as the "fifth Veda" — accessible to all four varnas — and regards performance as an offering to the divine (natya = gift of the gods).

The Natyashastra describes 108 karanas — the fundamental combinations of hand and foot positions — which form the grammar of classical dance. It also defines the theory of rasa (aesthetic flavour/emotion), originally specifying 8 rasas: shringara (love/beauty), hasya (humour), karuna (sorrow), raudra (fury), vira (heroism), bhayanaka (fear), bibhatsa (disgust), adbhuta (wonder). The philosopher Abhinavagupta (c. 975–1025 CE, Kashmir) added a 9th: shanta (peace/serenity) in his commentary Abhinavabharati.

Dance is classified into three modalities: Nritta (pure movement — no narrative content), Nritya (expressive dance — using abhinaya to tell stories), and Natya (dance-drama — combining movement, expression, and dramatic dialogue). All eight classical forms combine these three modalities in varying proportions.

Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)

Bharatanatyam is the oldest and most widely practised of India's classical dance forms, originating in the temples of Tamil Nadu as the sadir or dasiattam tradition performed by devadasis (temple dancers consecrated to the deity). The dance was associated with the Bharata Natyam Shastra tradition and was revived and systematised in the 19th–20th centuries.

The name "Bharatanatyam" has two interpretations: it refers to sage Bharata (of the Natyashastra), and is also an acronym — BHAva (expression) + RAga (melody) + TAla (rhythm) + NATYA (drama). The dance uses Carnatic music as its accompaniment. Its characteristic posture is the araimandi (half-seated position with knees bent outward).

The dance almost disappeared under colonial moral stigma against devadasis. It was revived primarily by Rukmini Devi Arundale (1904–1986), who studied with the Tamil devadasi tradition master E. Krishna Iyer and Vazhuvoor Ramaiah Pillai, and founded Kalakshetra in Chennai (1936) — now a deemed university and the premier institution for Bharatanatyam training. Other major exponents include T. Balasaraswati (considered the greatest Bharatanatyam performer of the 20th century), Yamini Krishnamurthy, and Alarmel Valli.

A typical Bharatanatyam recital follows the margam (path): Alaripu → Jatiswaram → Shabdam → Varnam → Padam → Tillana → Shlokam. The varnam is the centrepiece — the longest item, combining both nritta and nritya.

Kathak (North India)

Kathak is the principal classical dance of North India, deriving its name from the Sanskrit katha (story) and kathakar (storyteller). Originating with the Kathakar priests who narrated stories from the epics and Puranas through gesture and dance in temples, Kathak was transformed under Mughal patronage into a sophisticated court entertainment that absorbed elements of Persian music, ghazal, and thumri. The dance thus reflects a Hindu-Muslim cultural synthesis unique among Indian classical forms.

Kathak is characterised by rapid pirouettes (chakkar), intricate footwork with bells (ghungroo), and the close interaction between the dancer and the tabla player — a feature absent in South Indian classical forms. There are three principal gharanas (schools): Jaipur gharana (emphasis on vigorous footwork, athletic prowess, tala), Lucknow gharana (emphasis on grace, nazakat/nazaakat — delicacy, expressiveness, abhinaya; patronised by the Nawabs of Awadh), and Banaras gharana (distinct thumri style). Key 20th-century exponents: Birju Maharaj (Lucknow gharana; Padma Vibhushan; greatest modern Kathak master), Lachhu Maharaj, Sitara Devi.

Odissi (Odisha)

Odissi is one of the oldest living dance traditions in India, with sculptural evidence from the caves of Udayagiri and Khandagiri (2nd century BCE, carved for Jain monks by king Kharavela) and the famous dancing girl sculpture in the Konark Sun Temple. Odissi was performed by maharis (female temple dancers) in the temples of Puri Jagannath, Konark, and Bhubaneswar. The dance was also performed by gotipua — young boy dancers in female costume who performed in temple courtyards.

Odissi is characterised by the tribhangi posture — three bends of the body at the neck, torso, and knee — creating a lyrical, fluid, sculpture-like form. The costume includes traditional Puri silk with silver filigree ornaments. Subjects are almost entirely from the Krishna-Radha tradition and from the poetry of Jayadeva (the Gita Govinda, composed in Puri c. 12th century CE). Key exponents: Kelucharan Mohapatra (the modern systematiser of Odissi; Padma Vibhushan), Sanjukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh.

Kathakali (Kerala)

Kathakali is the classical dance-drama of Kerala, combining dance, drama, music, and elaborate costume and make-up into a total theatrical experience. The name means "story-play" (katha = story, kali = play). Performances traditionally take place overnight in temple courtyards, depicting stories from the Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Bhagavata Purana. Kathakali performers are exclusively male in the traditional form (though women now participate).

The most distinctive feature of Kathakali is its elaborate make-up system (chutti) — characters are categorised by colour code: Pacha (green face) = noble/heroic characters (Krishna, Rama, Arjuna); Katti (green face with upturned nose) = villainous heroes (Ravana); Tadi (red beard) = hunters/evil characters; Kari (black) = female demons; Minukku (shining/natural) = women and Brahmins. Make-up preparation alone takes 3–4 hours. The eye-movements (navarasas expressed through the eyes alone) are a special training requiring years of practice. Key exponents: Kalamandalam Gopi, Kalamandalam Ramankutty Nair.

Kathakali evolved from earlier dance-drama forms like Krishnanattam (patronised by the Zamorin of Kozhikode) and Ramanattam (Kottarakkara Thampuran, c. 17th century). The Kerala Kalamandalam (founded 1930 by Vallathol Narayana Menon and Mukunda Raja) has been the leading institution for its preservation and teaching.

Kuchipudi, Manipuri, Mohiniyattam & Sattriya

Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh / Telangana)

Kuchipudi takes its name from the village of Kuchipudi in Krishna district, Andhra Pradesh, where it was traditionally performed as a dance-drama by the all-male Brahmin community called Bhagavatula. The tradition was reformed and codified by Siddhendra Yogi (17th century), who composed the famous Bhama Kalapam depicting Satyabhama's quarrel with Krishna. Kuchipudi is known for its virtuosic footwork, speech (abhinaya with spoken dialogue), and the famous trick of dancing on the rim of a brass plate (tarangam). Key exponent: Vempati Chinna Satyam.

Manipuri (Manipur)

Manipuri dance comes from the Vaishnava devotional tradition of Manipur, associated with the rituals of the Manipuri kings and the Radha-Krishna worship introduced to Manipur in the 18th century (the kingdom converted to Vaishnavism under Maharaja Pamheiba in 1704). The dance is characterised by a gentle, circular, undulating quality — no sharp footsteps — with the legs slightly bent and the body in a flowing, serpentine motion. The principal form is the Ras Lila (depicting Krishna's dance with the gopis), performed on full-moon nights. The distinctive cylindrical skirt (potloi) is characteristic. Key exponent: Guru Bipin Singh. Rabindranath Tagore saw Manipuri dance performed and invited its teachers to Visva-Bharati.

Mohiniyattam (Kerala)

Mohiniyattam ("dance of the enchantress Mohini") is the feminine classical solo dance of Kerala. It is characterised by the lasya style — graceful, gentle, feminine movement — in contrast to Kathakali's vigorous tandava. The costume is simple white and gold — Kerala kasavu saree. Mohiniyattam declined in the 19th century and was revived in the 20th century, primarily by poet Vallathol Narayana Menon and later by danseuse Kalyani Amma and Bharati Shivaji.

Sattriya (Assam)

Sattriya is the classical dance of Assam, originating in the Vaishnava sattras (monasteries) established by the saint-reformer Srimanta Shankardev (1449–1568) in the 15th–16th century. Shankardev used dance-drama (called ankiya nat) as a medium of devotional instruction, spreading Krishna bhakti across Assam. Sattriya was traditionally performed only by male monks (bhokots) inside the monasteries. It was accorded classical status by the Sangeet Natak Akademi in 2000 — the most recently recognised classical form. Key exponents include Jatin Goswami and Indira P.P. Bora.

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