Pre-Mughal Origins of Indian Painting
Indian painting has an unbroken tradition stretching from the prehistoric rock art of Bhimbetka (Madhya Pradesh, c. 30,000 BCE) through the murals of Ajanta (2nd century BCE – 6th century CE) to the sophisticated miniature schools that flourished under Mughal, Rajput, Pahari, and Deccan patronage. Understanding this lineage is essential for UPSC questions that test whether candidates know the difference between mural traditions and manuscript/miniature traditions.
The Ajanta paintings represent the pinnacle of ancient Indian mural art — using the fresco-secco technique on plaster walls, depicting Buddhist Jataka stories and bodhisattvas with fluid lines and rich mineral pigments. The Chitrasutra section of the Vishnudharmottara Purana (c. 5th–7th century CE) is the earliest Indian treatise on painting, outlining the six limbs (shadanga) of classical Indian painting: rupa-bheda (distinction of form), pramanam (correct proportion), bhava (expression), lavanya-yojanam (infusing grace), sadrishyam (likeness), and varnikabhanga (use of colour/brush).
The miniature tradition proper begins with illustrated manuscripts — the Pala school of Bengal and Bihar (8th–12th century) produced Buddhist manuscripts on palm-leaves with elongated figures and strong outlines. The western Indian/Jain school (Gujarat and Rajasthan, 11th–15th century) illustrated Jain canonical texts (Kalpasutra, Kalakacharya Katha) with angular figures, protruding farther eye, brilliant reds and golds on palm-leaf and later paper.
The Mughal Painting School (1556–1757)
Mughal miniature painting emerged from the confluence of Persian (Safavid) technique and Indian artistic sensibility. It was one of the most sophisticated court arts ever developed anywhere in the world — characterised by extreme technical refinement, individual portraiture, and encyclopaedic documentation of the natural world.
Foundation under Humayun and Akbar
Humayun brought two Persian masters — Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad (also called Khwaja Abdus Samad "Shirin Qalam" or Sweet Pen) — from the Safavid court at Tabriz to India around 1550. These masters were the direct founders of the Mughal atelier (karkhana). Under Akbar's patronage, the first major project was the Hamzanama (also: Dastan-i-Amir Hamza) — a massive project involving ~1,400 large-format illustrations (not miniature!) on cloth, depicting the adventures of Hamza, uncle of the Prophet. It was begun under Humayun and completed under Akbar (c. 1562–77).
Akbar's imperial library commissioned translations of Sanskrit texts — the Mahabharata (Razmnama, "Book of Wars"), Ramayana, Baburnama, and Akbarnama — all extensively illustrated. Akbar employed hundreds of Indian painters, many of whom were Hindu, leading to the incorporation of Indian elements: bold colour, narrative energy, and naturalistic Indian flora and fauna.
Notable painters of the Akbar period include Daswant (regarded by Abul Fazl as the greatest painter of the age; tragically took his own life young) and Basawan (master of portraiture and composition). The Tutinama (Tales of a Parrot) is another key illustrated manuscript from Akbar's atelier.
Golden Age under Jahangir
Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) was the greatest connoisseur among the Mughals. He famously claimed he could identify any painting's individual artist even when multiple painters collaborated. His court produced the finest nature studies — birds, flowers, animals — with a scientific precision that rivals European botanical illustration of the same period. Key painters: Ustad Mansur ("Wonder of the Age" — famous for his paintings of Siberian crane, turkey, and rare flora), Abu al-Hasan Nadir al-Zaman (famed for portraits and the painting of Jahangir preferring a Sufi saint over kings). Jahangir's portraits incorporated European allegorical elements — showing him weighing justice on scales, or shooting the figure of Poverty.
Later Mughal Painting
Shah Jahan's reign saw superb portraiture and Mughal architecture documentation. Aurangzeb's austerity led artists to migrate to Rajput and Deccan courts. Under Muhammad Shah "Rangeela" (r. 1719–1748) there was a brief revival — romantic themes re-entered — but the school never recovered its former grandeur. By the late 18th century, British East India Company patronage led to the Company School (Patna/Murshidabad), which combined Mughal technique with English watercolour topography.
Rajput Painting School (16th–19th Century)
Rajput painting is an umbrella term for the miniature traditions of the Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan and central India. Unlike Mughal painting which centred on the emperor's karkhana, Rajput painting was supported by multiple royal courts — each developing its own distinctive style. The subjects are predominantly devotional — Krishna's childhood (Bhagavata Purana), Radha-Krishna romance (Gita Govinda, Surdas's poetry), and epic narratives — though secular themes like hunting and portraiture also appear.
Major Rajput Sub-Schools
Mewar (Udaipur): The most conservative and iconic Rajput style. Strong, vivid colours; bold outlines; flat treatment of figures against bright-coloured backgrounds. The Rasikapriya illustrations by the painter Sahibdin (c. 1640) are celebrated. Mewar resisted Mughal influence longer than other schools.
Bundi and Kota (Hadoti region): Bundi painting (from c. 1625) is noted for its dense, lush natural backgrounds — forest and garden settings with profuse animal life. Kota painting (17th–19th century) specialised in hunting scenes with dynamic compositions showing animals in movement. Both use a characteristic dense green foliage style.
Kishangarh: The most distinctive of all Rajput schools, flourishing under Maharaja Sawant Singh (c. 1748–57, a devotee-poet of Krishna). The iconic Bani Thani portrait by court painter Nihal Chand depicts a graceful woman with elongated features, arched eyebrows, and a sharp profile — sometimes called "India's Mona Lisa." The style is characterised by elongated figures with lotus-shaped eyes and a refined romantic spirituality.
Marwar (Jodhpur): Bold colours, flat backgrounds, strongly delineated figures. Less Mughal influence than Bikaner. The Ragamala series — visual representations of musical ragas — is a favourite subject across Rajput painting.
Bikaner: Bikaner's court had close Mughal connections, and its paintings show the most Mughal influence — fine brushwork, subtle shading, portrait studies. Bikaner painters were sometimes employed at the Mughal court.
Pahari Painting School (17th–19th Century)
Pahari ("of the hills") painting refers to the miniature traditions of the small Hindu hill kingdoms strung along the Himalayan foothills — Basohli, Guler, Kangra, Chamba, Kullu, Nurpur, Mandi, Bilaspur — in what is now Himachal Pradesh and Jammu and Kashmir. Like Rajput painting, Pahari art is devotional in spirit, with Vaishnavism (especially the Radha-Krishna theme) as its primary subject.
Basohli School (c. 1660–1720)
The Basohli school, from the hill state of Basohli (Jammu region), is the earliest and most dramatic of the Pahari schools. It is characterised by intensely bold primary colours — fiery reds, brilliant yellows, deep blues; angular, almost stylised human figures; and the distinctive use of beetle wings (elytra) applied to depict glittering jewellery on figures. Subjects include the Rasamanjari of Bhanudatta, the Gita Govinda, and early Devi images. The overall effect is more passionate and primitive in comparison to the later lyrical Kangra style.
Guler School (c. 1720–1760)
The transitional Guler school, from the Kangra valley, introduced softer lines and more naturalistic features compared to Basohli. The master painter Nainsukh (c. 1710–1778) — one of India's greatest ever portrait painters — worked for Balwant Singh of Jasrota (a minor Jammu chief). His intimate, affectionate portraits of Balwant Singh in everyday activities (weighing, reading, camping) are remarkably modern in sensibility.
Kangra School (c. 1760–1820)
The Kangra school is the high point of Pahari painting and one of the most beloved traditions in Indian art. It flourished under Maharaja Sansar Chand (r. 1775–1823), who was the greatest Pahari patron. Kangra style is lyrical, romantic, and delicate — cool blues and pale greens, elongated graceful figures, soft landscape backgrounds with rivers, trees, and monsoon clouds. The primary subjects are the Radha-Krishna romance (based on Gita Govinda, Sat Sai of Bihari, and Barahmasa). Kangra paintings were also produced in Nurpur, Chamba, and Kullu states with regional variations.
Deccan Painting School (c. 1565–1700)
The Deccan sultans — Bijapur (Adil Shahis), Golconda (Qutb Shahis), Ahmadnagar (Nizam Shahis), and Bidar (Barid Shahis) — patronised a distinctive school of miniature painting that fused Persian, Turkish (Safavid/Ottoman), and Indian elements independently of the Mughal court. In many ways the Deccan schools were more cosmopolitan than the Mughal school — absorbing African, Arab, and even Chinese influences through the Indian Ocean trade network.
Bijapur under Ali Adil Shah II and Ibrahim Adil Shah II was a particularly productive centre. Ibrahim Adil Shah II, a great music lover, is depicted in paintings with musical instruments. The Bijapur style shows figures with large, expressive eyes (almost exaggerated), rich gold backgrounds, and a characteristic elongated silhouette. The Nujum al-Ulum (Stars of the Sciences) manuscript (~1570) from Bijapur is a key early example.
Golconda (near modern Hyderabad) produced refined paintings notable for their brilliant colours, clear spatial organisation, and Dakhni cultural sensibility. The Ibrahim Rauza tomb and the Charminar are architectural counterparts to this sophisticated court culture.
After the Mughal conquest of Bijapur and Golconda by Aurangzeb in 1686–87, Deccan artists migrated to Hyderabad under the Nizam, creating a late Deccan school that blended Mughal influences with the earlier Dakhni tradition.
Comparative Table of Indian Painting Schools
| School | Period | Region | Style/Tone | Key Subjects | Notable Artists/Works |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mughal | 1550–1750 | Delhi, Agra, Lahore | Naturalistic, courtly, secular; Persian base + Indian input | Court scenes, portraits, nature studies, chronicles | Mir Sayyid Ali, Abd al-Samad, Daswant, Basawan, Ustad Mansur, Abu al-Hasan; Hamzanama, Baburnama, Akbarnama |
| Rajput — Mewar | 17th–19th c. | Udaipur (Rajasthan) | Bold, vibrant, flat; most conservative | Krishna lila, Ragamala, epics | Sahibdin; Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda |
| Rajput — Kishangarh | 18th c. | Kishangarh (Rajasthan) | Elongated lyrical figures, refined | Krishna-Radha; romantic devotional | Nihal Chand; Bani Thani |
| Rajput — Bundi/Kota | 17th–19th c. | Hadoti (Rajasthan) | Dense lush nature backgrounds (Bundi), dynamic hunting (Kota) | Hunting, court scenes, nature | Ragamala series (Bundi) |
| Pahari — Basohli | c. 1660–1720 | Basohli (Jammu) | Bold primary colours, angular, intense; beetle-wing jewels | Rasamanjari, Gita Govinda, Devi | —; Rasamanjari series |
| Pahari — Guler | c. 1720–60 | Guler (Kangra valley) | Transitional; softer naturalism | Portraits, Radha-Krishna | Nainsukh; Balwant Singh portraits |
| Pahari — Kangra | c. 1760–1820 | Kangra (H.P.) | Lyrical, romantic, cool blues/greens; graceful elongated figures | Radha-Krishna, Barahmasa, Gita Govinda | —; under Sansar Chand |
| Deccan | c. 1565–1700 | Bijapur, Golconda, Ahmadnagar | Cosmopolitan; Persian + Indian + African influences; vivid, gold backgrounds | Court scenes, music, portraits | Nujum al-Ulum; Ibrahim Adil Shah II courts |
| Company School | Late 18th–19th c. | Patna, Murshidabad, Calcutta | Mughal technique + English watercolour style; topographic | Indian flora/fauna, crafts, trades | Shaikh Zain al-Din; botanical illustrations |
Previous Year Questions
Consider the following statements about Mughal painting:
1. The Hamzanama was commissioned by Akbar and painted entirely by Persian artists brought by him.
2. Ustad Mansur was renowned for his portraits of Mughal emperors and court nobles.
3. The technique of naturalistic portraiture in Mughal painting was partly influenced by European paintings gifted by Jesuit missionaries.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 2 and 3 only
Answer: (b) 3 only
Statement 1 is wrong: Hamzanama was started under Humayun (not commissioned from scratch by Akbar) and employed hundreds of Indian painters — it was not painted entirely by Persians. Statement 2 is wrong: Ustad Mansur was renowned for natural history paintings (birds, plants, animals), not court portraits — that was Abu al-Hasan and others. Statement 3 is correct: Jesuit missionaries brought European illustrated religious books (especially Flemish engravings) to Akbar's court; Mughal painters studied the techniques of light-and-shadow and individual facial characterisation from these.
With reference to Pahari painting, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. The Basohli school is characterised by the use of beetle-wing cases to depict glittering jewellery.
2. Kangra painting flourished under the patronage of Maharaja Ranjit Singh of Punjab.
3. Nainsukh, a master painter associated with the Guler school, is known for intimate portraits of his patron.
Select the correct answer using the code below:
(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (a) 1 and 3 only
Statement 2 is wrong: Kangra painting flourished under Maharaja Sansar Chand (Kangra ruling family), not under Ranjit Singh of Punjab (a Sikh ruler). When Ranjit Singh conquered Kangra Fort in 1809, it actually disrupted Sansar Chand's power and the school declined. Statements 1 and 3 are correct.