At the time of Mahavira's death, Jain tradition records a community of extraordinary size: 14,000 monks, 36,000 nuns, and nearly half a million lay followers. Within three centuries, that community had divided into two schools whose disagreement over a length of white cloth would determine not merely dress codes, but the structure of the Jain canon, the status of women in the tradition, and the identity of living Jain communities to the present day.
The Great Schism: Bhadrabahu and Sthulabhadra
The schism that created Digambara and Svetambara Jainism is traditionally dated to around 300 BCE and is associated with two figures: Bhadrabahu and Sthulabhadra. Bhadrabahu was the last Shruta-kevalin — a person who had memorised all fourteen Purvas, the oldest layer of Jain textual tradition. When he predicted a twelve-year famine in Magadha, he led a large group of monks southward to the Deccan region, settling at Shravanabelagola in present-day Karnataka. Jain tradition holds that Chandragupta Maurya, having renounced his throne, accompanied Bhadrabahu on this journey and ultimately died there by the Jain practice of sallekhana (voluntary fasting unto death).
Sthulabhadra remained at Pataliputra with the remaining monks. During the hardship of the famine, these northern monks — the tradition claims — loosened the rule of total nudity and adopted white robes. When Bhadrabahu's followers returned from the Deccan after the famine ended, they found a changed monastic community, and the confrontation over this adaptation became the defining rupture of Jain history.
It is important to note, as the life of Mahavira and the foundational Jain doctrines make clear, that nudity for Mahavira was not incidental but essential: it was the visible sign of total renunciation, the abandonment of every form of property including clothing. A monk who wore a robe, in the Digambara reading, had not truly renounced. From the Svetambara side, the robe was a minor practical concession that did not compromise the spirit of renunciation.
Five Points of Controversy
Jain tradition codifies the disagreements between the two schools as five major controversies (pañca-mahā-viṣaya), each of which has doctrinal depth well beyond a surface dispute:
| Controversy | Digambara Position | Svetambara Position |
|---|---|---|
| Monastic dress | Complete nudity; clothing is property and thus bondage | White robes permissible; nudity not required for liberation |
| Liberation for women | Impossible in a female body; must be reborn as a man first | Women can attain liberation; 19th tirthankara Mallinatha was a woman |
| Omniscient beings and food | A kevalin (omniscient) does not eat; body is sustained by divine energy | A kevalin may eat normally; omniscience does not remove bodily need |
| Mahavira's embryo transfer | Reject: Mahavira was born directly to his Kshatriya mother Trishala | Accept: embryo transferred from Brahmin woman Devananda to Trishala |
| Canonical texts | All 12 Angas are lost; current texts are corrupt reconstructions | 11 full Angas + part of 12th survive as the authoritative Agamas |
The fifth controversy — over the survival of the canonical texts — is the one with the greatest implications for UPSC, because it shapes how each school constructs its entire textual authority.
Digambara: The Sky-Clad School
Digambara (dik = directions, ambara = garment, hence "sky-clad") is the school that maintains total nudity as a requirement for male monastic liberation. Digambara monks — called munis — carry only a peacock-feather whisk (piccha) and a wooden water pot (kamandalu), and eat standing, accepting food in their cupped hands. The school is concentrated primarily in Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.
The most iconic Digambara site is Shravanabelagola in Hassan district, Karnataka, home to the colossal statue of Gomateshvara (Bahubali) — 18 metres high, carved from a single granite outcrop in 983 CE by Chamundaraya, a commander of the Western Ganga dynasty. The Mahamastakabhisheka (great anointing ceremony), held every twelve years at this site, is one of the largest religious gatherings in India and a Digambara hallmark. Other important Digambara sites include Mudabidri and Karkala in Karnataka.
The philosopher Kundakunda (variously dated c. 1st–5th CE) is the towering figure of Digambara intellectual tradition. His Samayasara (Essence of the Soul) and Panchastikayasara (Essence of the Five Substances) define the Digambara understanding of the pure soul liberated from all karma. His influence in Digambara Jainism is comparable to Nagarjuna's in Mahayana Buddhism — explored further in the article on Mahayana philosophy and the Bodhisattva ideal.
Svetambara: The White-Robed School
Svetambara (sveta = white, ambara = garment, hence "white-clad") accepts white robes for monastics, permits women to attain liberation, and accepts the current Agamas as authoritative canonical texts. The school is dominant in Gujarat and Rajasthan, regions where Jainism has historically been associated with merchant communities.
Svetambara sacred architecture produced some of India's most celebrated temple complexes. The Palitana temples on Shatrunjaya hill in Bhavnagar district, Gujarat — over 900 marble temples accumulated across centuries — constitute the holiest Svetambara pilgrimage site. The Ranakpur temple in Rajasthan (1444 CE, built by Dhanna Shah / Dharana Shah) is celebrated for its 1,444 intricately carved marble columns. The Dilwara temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan (11th–13th CE), are among the finest examples of marble carving in Indian art history.
With reference to Indian history, consider the following statements:
- Digambara Jains believe that women cannot attain liberation without first being reborn as men.
- Sthanakvasi Jain monastics are required to keep the mouth permanently covered with a cloth.
- The Vallabhi Council of c. 453–467 CE is credited with finalising the Svetambara Jain Agamas in written form.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Sub-Sects: Sthanakvasi and Terapanthi
Within the Svetambara school, two significant reform movements produced sub-sects of UPSC importance. The most commonly tested — and most frequently confused with Buddhism — is the Sthanakvasi. UPSC 2022 explicitly tested whether students knew that Sthanakvasi is a Jain (not Buddhist) sect, a trap that trips up many candidates.
The Sthanakvasi movement originated in the reformist ideas of Lonka Shah (or Lonkagaccha), a 15th-century layman from Ahmedabad who argued that image worship was not sanctioned by the original Jain texts. His followers rejected the use of temples and idols. The sect was formally consolidated in 1653 CE. Sthanakvasi monks and nuns are distinguished by the permanent wearing of a muhpatti — a cloth tied over the mouth — and they conduct worship in plain halls called sthanaks rather than in temples. There is no idol, no priest, and no ceremonial offering.
The Terapanthi (Svetambara) is a still stricter reform sect founded by Acharya Bhikshu in 1760 CE, who broke away from the Sthanakvasi community. Its distinguishing features are a single head (only one acharya at any time), strict centralised discipline, and the doctrine that monks should not engage in social welfare activities such as running hospitals or schools — on the grounds that accumulating good karma for others is not the monk's function. The Terapanthi produced the famous 20th-century reformer Acharya Mahaprajna and pioneered the Preksha Dhyana (perception meditation) system.
Note: there is also a Digambara sect called Terapanthi, which is unrelated to the Svetambara Terapanthi — UPSC occasionally exploits this name overlap.
Jain Canonical Texts: The Agamas
The Agamas are the canonical scriptures of the Svetambara school, composed in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit (a Middle Indo-Aryan language). They are organised into several collections. The most important are the 12 Angas (major limbs), the 12 Upangas (minor limbs), 6 Chedasutras (disciplinary texts), and 4 Mulasutras (root texts).
The Acharanga Sutra (first Anga) is the oldest surviving Jain text. Its first book describes Mahavira's twelve years of wandering and asceticism with remarkable literary power — the cold of winter nights, the hostility of villagers, the attacks of insects that Mahavira bore without retaliation. The second book of the Acharanga Sutra provides the most detailed rules of Jain monastic conduct. It is the primary source for Mahavira's biography.
The Bhagavati Sutra (also called Vyakhyaprajnapti, the fifth Anga) is the largest and encyclopaedic Anga — a dialogic text recording questions put to Mahavira by his chief disciple Indrabhuti Gautama. It covers cosmology, karma, the nature of souls, and the biographies of other tirthankaras. The Uttaradhyayana Sutra (a Mulasutra) records Mahavira's last sermon and is among the most-read Jain texts.
The Kalpasutra (a Chedasutra, attributed to Bhadrabahu) contains the biographies of the 24 tirthankaras — especially Mahavira — and is ritually recited during Paryushana, the holiest Jain festival observed in the monsoon months. It is one of the few texts accepted by both Svetambara and, to a degree, Digambara scholarship as containing early material.
| Anga / Text | Position | Key Content | UPSC Hook |
|---|---|---|---|
| Acharanga Sutra | 1st Anga | Mahavira's life and asceticism; monastic conduct rules | Oldest surviving Jain text; composed in Ardhamagadhi |
| Bhagavati Sutra | 5th Anga | Q&A between Mahavira and Indrabhuti Gautama; cosmology, karma | Largest Anga; called Vyakhyaprajnapti |
| Drishtivada | 12th Anga | Contained the 14 Purvas | LOST — agreed by both schools |
| Kalpasutra | Chedasutra (Bhadrabahu) | Lives of 24 tirthankaras; Paryushana recitation | Attributed to Bhadrabahu; not an Anga |
| Uttaradhyayana Sutra | Mulasutra | Mahavira's last sermon; ethical teachings | One of the most widely quoted Jain texts |
The Fourteen Purvas: The Lost Texts
The 14 Purvas are the most ancient stratum of Jain textual tradition, said to have been first taught by the first tirthankara Rishabhadeva and transmitted through the lineage of tirthankaras down to Mahavira. They were contained within the 12th Anga (Drishtivada). Both Digambara and Svetambara schools agree that the 14 Purvas are now lost — this is one of the few points of consensus between the two schools.
The Digambara position goes further: they hold that not just the 14 Purvas but all 12 Angas are effectively lost, and the texts currently in use by the Svetambaras are corrupted oral reconstructions made at the Pataliputra Council by monks who had partial and imperfect memories. The Svetambara position is that the 14 Purvas and the 12th Anga are lost, but the remaining 11 Angas and associated texts are faithfully preserved.
For UPSC purposes: the question of which texts are "authentic" maps onto the sectarian divide. Digambara = all original texts lost; Svetambara = Agamas (minus 12th Anga) preserved. The 14 Purvas themselves are cited in the Digambara Satkhandagama as having been the source from which the later Digambara texts drew what remnants they could.
Digambara Texts: The Alternative Canon
Since the Digambara school rejected the Svetambara Agamas as authoritative, Digambara scholars over the early centuries of the Common Era composed their own textual tradition. The two foundational Digambara texts are the Satkhandagama (Six-Volumes-of-Doctrine) and the Kashayapahuda (Passion-Treatise).
The Satkhandagama was composed by Pushpadanta and Bhutabali in the 1st–2nd century CE. It covers the theory of karma and the path to liberation in six volumes, drawing on fragments of knowledge from the 14 Purvas that were still in circulation. The monk Virasen wrote the commentary Dhavala on it in the early 9th century — a monumental 84,000-verse composition. The Kashayapahuda was composed by Gunadhar (1st–2nd CE) and also received an elaborate commentary from Virasen (Jayadhavala).
The philosopher Kundakunda's works — especially the Samayasara, Pravachansara, and Panchastikayasara — form the devotional and philosophical core of Digambara practice. His argument that the pure soul (shuddha atman) stands apart from all karmic contamination in its ultimate nature aligns with, and may have influenced, the non-dual philosophy emerging in the same period. The Gommatasara of Nemichandra (c. 10th–11th CE) and the Adipurana of Jinasena (c. 9th CE) complete the classical Digambara textual canon.
With reference to the Jain canonical text the Acharanga Sutra, consider the following statements:
- It is the first of the twelve Angas of the Svetambara Jain canon.
- It contains the earliest biographical account of Mahavira's period of intense asceticism.
- Both Digambara and Svetambara Jains regard it as a fully authoritative canonical text.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
The Two Jain Councils
Jain tradition records two major councils that shaped the textual tradition. The first was held at Pataliputra around 300 BCE, under the presidency of Sthulabhadra, with the patronage of the Maurya kings. At this council, eleven Angas were compiled from oral tradition — the 12th, containing the 14 Purvas, was already being forgotten. The Svetambara tradition accepts this council; the Digambara tradition does not recognize its output as canonical, holding that the compositions made without Bhadrabahu's participation were incomplete.
The second council was held at Vallabhi (in present-day Gujarat) around 453–467 CE, under the leadership of Devarddhigani Kshmasramana. At this council, the Svetambara Agamas were finalised and reduced to writing for the first time. Vallabhi is thus the Svetambara equivalent of what the Pali Canon writing-down at Vattagamani Abhaya's Ceylon is to Theravada Buddhism — the moment when oral tradition became fixed text. The relationship between the Buddhist councils and the Jain councils, and the parallel process of canonical consolidation in both traditions, is a recurring theme in ancient Indian textual history.
| Council | Location | Date | President | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st Jain Council | Pataliputra (Bihar) | c. 300 BCE | Sthulabhadra | 11 Angas compiled; 12th (with 14 Purvas) not recovered |
| 2nd Jain Council | Vallabhi (Gujarat) | c. 453–467 CE | Devarddhigani Kshmasramana | Agamas written down in final Svetambara form |
Exam Takeaway UPSC targets four traps in this article: (1) Sthanakvasi is a Jain sect, not Buddhist; (2) Digambara monks are naked, Svetambara wear white robes — not the other way round; (3) the 14 Purvas are lost according to both schools, not just Digambara; (4) the Vallabhi Council finalised the Svetambara texts in writing — the Digambara tradition rejects the Vallabhi Council entirely. The Gomateshvara statue at Shravanabelagola belongs to the Digambara tradition and is associated with the Western Ganga dynasty, not the Hoysalas.