Muhammad of Ghor and the Foundation of Turkish Rule
The Delhi Sultanate grew from the military campaigns of Muhammad of Ghor (Muiz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam), ruler of the Ghurid kingdom in Afghanistan. His decisive engagement in India was the Second Battle of Tarain (1192 CE), where he defeated and killed the Rajput king Prithviraj III (Prithviraj Chahamana) of the Chahamana/Chauhan dynasty. The First Battle of Tarain (1191 CE) had gone to Prithviraj, who famously released Muhammad of Ghor — a magnanimity that was not reciprocated.
After Tarain, Muhammad of Ghor's general Qutb-ud-din Aibak consolidated control over northern India, capturing Delhi, Kanauj, and much of the Gangetic plain. In 1206 CE, Muhammad of Ghor was assassinated at the Indus, and Aibak, as the most powerful of his deputies in India, took independent control — marking the formal beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.
Slave Dynasty Overview
| Sultan | Reign | Key Fact |
|---|---|---|
| Qutb-ud-din Aibak | 1206–1210 | Founder; died playing chaugan (polo); started Qutb Minar; Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque |
| Aram Shah | 1210–1211 | Weak successor; deposed by Turkish nobles who invited Iltutmish |
| Shams-ud-din Iltutmish | 1211–1236 | Real consolidator; Caliph investiture 1229; completed Qutb Minar; Iqta system; silver tanka coin |
| Rukn-ud-din Firuz | 1236 | Weak; deposed within months |
| Razia Sultan | 1236–1240 | First (and only) female sultan of Delhi; opposed by Chahalgani; killed 1240 |
| Bahram Shah / Masud Shah / Nasir-ud-din Mahmud | 1240–1266 | Puppet sultans under Chahalgani influence; Balban as naib during Nasir-ud-din's reign |
| Ghiyas-ud-din Balban | 1266–1287 | Destroyed Chahalgani; Zil-i-ilahi; blood and iron policy; Mongol defence |
| Muiz-ud-din Qaiqabad / Shamsuddin Kaimur | 1287–1290 | Weak successors; Khalji revolution 1290 |
Qutb-ud-din Aibak (1206–1210 CE)
Qutb-ud-din Aibak was a Turkish slave purchased by Muhammad of Ghor, who rose to become his most trusted general in India. After Muhammad of Ghor's assassination in 1206 CE, Aibak declared himself an independent ruler at Lahore (not Delhi — this is a detail UPSC sometimes tests).
His reign was short — just four years — and he died in 1210 CE after falling from his horse while playing chaugan (a form of polo). He was popularly known as "Lakh Baksh" (giver of lakhs) for his legendary generosity.
Architectural Works
- Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque ("Might of Islam") at Delhi — the first mosque built in India after the conquest, begun c. 1193 CE. Built using materials from demolished Hindu and Jain temples (columns are visibly non-Islamic).
- Qutb Minar — construction begun by Aibak (first storey); completed by Iltutmish (three more storeys); two additional storeys added by Firuz Shah Tughlaq after lightning damage.
- Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque at Ajmer — built over a Sanskrit college, allegedly in "two and a half days" (hence the name).
Iltutmish (1211–1236 CE) — The Real Founder
Shams-ud-din Iltutmish is widely regarded as the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate — not Aibak — for the following reasons: he was the first sultan to receive a manshur (letter of investiture) from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad in 1229 CE, giving his sultanate formal Islamic legitimacy. He moved the capital from Lahore to Delhi. He introduced the silver tanka and copper jital as standard coins. He organised the Iqta system (see below).
Iltutmish also faced a crucial decision regarding the Mongols: when Jalaluddin Mangburni (heir of Khwarazm Shah, fleeing Mongols) sought refuge in Delhi, Iltutmish wisely refused — avoiding inviting a Mongol attack on his newly consolidated kingdom.
His architectural contribution: he completed the Qutb Minar (adding three more storeys to Aibak's first storey) and built the Iltutmish tomb at Qutb complex — the first example of true Islamic architecture in India with geometric arabesque decoration.
Aibak is often called the "founder" because he was the first to rule independently. But Iltutmish is called the "real founder" or "true founder" because: (1) received Caliph's investiture; (2) made Delhi the capital; (3) organised administration; (4) introduced proper coinage. In UPSC questions that say "first sultan to receive Caliph's recognition" — the answer is Iltutmish, not Aibak.
The Iqta System
Iltutmish systematised the Iqta system — one of the most important administrative innovations of the Delhi Sultanate period. An iqta was an assignment of revenue from a territory given to a soldier or officer (called a muqti or wali) in lieu of cash salary.
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| What is an Iqta? | A revenue assignment — not land ownership; the muqti collected revenue from an assigned territory |
| Who received it? | Soldiers, officers, governors (muqtis/walis); large iqtas = provinces |
| Obligation | Maintain a specified number of soldiers; pay revenue surplus to the sultan |
| Non-hereditary | In theory (and in Iltutmish's intent), iqtas were transferable and not inheritable |
| Central supervision | Khwaja (accountant) posted alongside muqti to check revenues |
| Later modification | Over time, iqtas became more hereditary; Alauddin Khalji later tried to reassert control |
The Chahalgani — The Forty Turkish Nobles
Iltutmish organised a group of forty (chalisa) powerful Turkish slave-nobles called the Chahalgani or "The Forty." These were the most powerful military and administrative officers of the sultanate. After Iltutmish's death, the Chahalgani became the real power behind the throne — making and deposing sultans at will.
The Chahalgani's grip on power is why the period 1236–1266 CE is often called the "rule of the Forty" — sultans were mere figureheads. Balban, himself once a member of the Forty, understood their danger and systematically destroyed them after becoming sultan, either executing or demoting each member.
Razia Sultan (1236–1240 CE)
Razia bint Iltutmish was India's first female Muslim ruler — the first and only woman to sit on the throne of Delhi. Iltutmish himself nominated her as successor over his sons, recognising her superior capabilities.
Razia broke with conventions of purdah: she appeared in court without a veil, wearing a tunic and cap (qaba and kulah), and rode elephants in public. She appointed an Abyssinian slave named Jamaluddin Yakut as her chief attendant (Amir-i-Akhur / Master of Stables) — a non-Turkish, non-Muslim favourite, which deeply offended the Turkish nobility.
The Chahalgani revolted. Malik Altunia of Bhatinda (Tabarhindah) rebelled and captured Razia. She then married Altunia in a political manoeuvre, and they marched together on Delhi, but were defeated by the forces of her brother Bahram Shah. Razia and Altunia were killed by Hindus near Kaithal in 1240 CE.
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban (1266–1287 CE)
Ghiyas-ud-din Balban was the most powerful and intellectually sophisticated of the Slave Dynasty sultans. A member of the original Chahalgani, he rose to become naib (deputy) under Sultan Nasir-ud-din Mahmud (1246–1266), effectively ruling the sultanate before formally taking the throne in 1266.
Blood and Iron Policy
Balban pursued what historians call a "blood and iron" policy — absolute suppression of any challenge to sultanic authority:
- Crushed Mewati bandits in the doab region with brutal efficiency, clearing forests and destroying rebel hideouts
- Executed the rebel governor of Bengal, Tughril Khan, and displayed his body publicly
- Systematically eliminated the Chahalgani by execution, imprisonment, or demotion
- Created an extensive spy network (barid) — every officer was watched by independent spies
Mongol Defence
Balban's greatest strategic achievement was defending the Delhi Sultanate from the Mongols. He strengthened the north-west frontier fortifications, placed his son Muhammad Khan (his most able and beloved son) in charge of the Punjab frontier. Muhammad Khan died fighting the Mongols — Balban's grief at this loss is one of the most poignant passages in medieval Indian historiography (recorded by Amir Khusrau and Ziauddin Barani).
Balban's Theory of Kingship
Balban developed the most elaborate ideology of sultanate kingship based on the Persian concept of divine monarchy:
| Concept | Meaning / Practice |
|---|---|
| Zil-i-ilahi | "Shadow of God on Earth" — the sultan was God's representative; his authority was divine |
| Sijda | Prostration before the sultan — every visitor, noble, and officer was required to prostrate |
| Paibos | Kissing the sultan's feet — a mark of total submission |
| Persian court culture | Celebrated Navroz (Persian New Year); strict court etiquette; no laughter in court |
| Genealogy claim | Claimed descent from the mythical Turkish hero Afrasiyab to assert noble lineage |
| Diwan-i-Arz | Reorganised the military department; insisted on branding (dagh) horses and keeping descriptive rolls (chehra) of soldiers — though this is more associated with Alauddin Khalji; Balban established the principle |
In Islam, sijda (prostration) is reserved for God alone during prayer. Balban's requirement that people perform sijda before the sultan was therefore theologically controversial — it equated the sultan with divine authority. Orthodox Islamic scholars objected. UPSC sometimes asks about this religious dimension of Balban's court protocol.
The Khalji Dynasty article covers the next phase — when Alauddin Khalji, building on Balban's administrative framework, pushed sultanate power to its maximum extent both in territory and economic control.
📝 UPSC Prelims PYQ — 2021
Consider the following statements regarding the Delhi Sultanate:
1. Qutb-ud-din Aibak received formal recognition from the Abbasid Caliph, which gave the Delhi Sultanate Islamic legitimacy.
2. Iltutmish moved the capital of the Delhi Sultanate from Lahore to Delhi.
3. Razia Sultan was the first Muslim woman to rule any part of the Indian subcontinent.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Statement 1: Incorrect. It was Iltutmish, not Aibak, who received formal recognition (manshur) from the Abbasid Caliph in 1229 CE.
Statement 2: Correct. Iltutmish moved the capital from Lahore (where Aibak had ruled) to Delhi, making it the permanent seat of the sultanate.
Statement 3: Incorrect. Razia was the first woman sultan of Delhi, but she was not the first Muslim woman ruler anywhere in the subcontinent — there were earlier female rulers in smaller kingdoms.
📝 UPSC Prelims PYQ — 2019
Consider the following statements about Balban's policy:
1. Balban introduced the practice of sijda (prostration) and paibos (kissing of feet) as part of court protocol to emphasise the divine nature of sultanate authority.
2. Balban broke up the Chahalgani (The Forty) by systematically removing their power and influence.
3. Balban's son Muhammad Khan successfully repelled all major Mongol invasions, keeping the Delhi Sultanate safe throughout Balban's reign.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Statement 1: Correct. Balban introduced sijda and paibos as court protocol, basing his theory of kingship on Persian concepts of divine monarchy (Zil-i-ilahi).
Statement 2: Correct. Balban systematically destroyed the Chahalgani — executing, imprisoning, or demoting its members — ending their stranglehold on the sultanate.
Statement 3: Incorrect. Muhammad Khan died fighting the Mongols on the Punjab frontier — he was killed in battle, not victorious throughout. His death was a great personal tragedy for Balban.
Frequently Asked Questions
Why is the dynasty called 'Slave Dynasty'? Were all its sultans slaves?
Only the first three sultans (Aibak, Aram Shah, Iltutmish) were of slave origin. Later rulers like Razia and Balban were not slaves in the conventional sense, though Balban was of Turkish slave stock. The more accurate term is Mamluk Dynasty (Arabic: mamluk = owned/slave). UPSC uses "Slave Dynasty" as the standard shorthand.
What was the significance of Iltutmish receiving the Caliph's investiture?
The 1229 CE manshur from the Abbasid Caliph of Baghdad gave Iltutmish's sultanate formal Islamic legitimacy — recognition from the supreme religious authority of Sunni Islam. This distinguished his sultanate from Aibak's earlier, more ad hoc rule, making him the "real founder" of an institutionalised Delhi Sultanate in the eyes of contemporaries and historians.
What was Balban's theory of kingship?
Balban based his rule on Persian concepts of divine kingship. He called himself Zil-i-ilahi (Shadow of God on Earth), enforced sijda (prostration) and paibos (kissing feet) as court protocol, celebrated Persian Navroz, maintained strict court etiquette, and claimed descent from the Turkish hero Afrasiyab. He combined this ideology with a "blood and iron" policy of ruthless suppression of any dissent.