War of Succession (1657–1658)
When Shah Jahan fell severely ill in September 1657, all four of his sons mobilised for the succession. The war lasted approximately a year, with four princes competing simultaneously.
| Prince | Base | Character | Outcome |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dara Shikoh (eldest) | Delhi (with Shah Jahan) | Sufi-inclined, Qadiri order; translated 52 Upanishads as Sirr-i-Akbar; wrote Majma-ul-Bahrain | Defeated at Samugarh 1658; captured 1659; executed on Aurangzeb's orders |
| Shuja (2nd son) | Bengal | Shia Muslim; poet | Defeated by Aurangzeb's general; fled to Arakan (Burma); died there |
| Aurangzeb (3rd son) | Deccan | Strict Sunni; brilliant general and administrator | WON; emperor 1658–1707 |
| Murad (youngest) | Gujarat | Allied with Aurangzeb temporarily | Tricked and imprisoned by Aurangzeb in 1658; executed 1661 |
The decisive battle was the Battle of Samugarh (29 May 1658) near Agra, where Aurangzeb and Murad together defeated Dara Shikoh's larger but poorly deployed army. Aurangzeb then proceeded to Agra, imprisoned his father Shah Jahan in Agra Fort, and proclaimed himself Emperor in July 1658 with the title Alamgir (Conqueror of the World).
Dara Shikoh: The Road Not Taken
Dara Shikoh (1615–1659) represents one of the great "what ifs" of Indian history. As a Sufi of the Qadiri order and a sincere seeker of interfaith understanding, he had explored both Islamic mysticism and Vedantic philosophy with equal depth. His major works include:
- Majma-ul-Bahrain (Confluence of Two Seas, 1655) — argued for essential unity between Islamic Sufism and Hindu Vedanta
- Sirr-i-Akbar (The Great Secret, 1657) — Persian translation of 52 Upanishads; he called the Upanishads "the hidden book" referenced in the Quran
- Safinat-ul-Auliya — biographies of Sufi saints
Dara Shikoh was executed on Aurangzeb's orders on 30 August 1659 — formally on charges of apostasy (renouncing Islam). His execution removed the most intellectually syncretic figure from the Mughal succession and paved the way for Aurangzeb's orthodox policies.
Aurangzeb's Religious Policy: Orthodox Islam
Aurangzeb pursued the most rigidly orthodox Sunni Muslim religious policy of any Mughal emperor. His measures reversed several of Akbar's policies of inclusion:
- Banned music (sama) from the court — dismissed court musicians (though some continued privately)
- Prohibited celebration of Hindu festivals (Holi, Diwali) at the Mughal court
- Banned the Hindu practice of sati (widow immolation) — this was one of his few policy overlaps with later reformers
- Demolished many temples and replaced them with mosques — notably the Kashi Vishwanath temple at Varanasi (Gyanvapi mosque built on the site) and the Krishna Janmabhoomi temple at Mathura
- Appointed muhtasibs (Islamic morality officers) to enforce Shari'a standards in public life
- Reimposed jaziya in 1679
Reimposition of Jaziya (1679)
Aurangzeb reimposed the jaziya (poll tax on non-Muslims) in 1679 CE — reversing Akbar's abolition of 1564. The reimposition was deeply resented; contemporary records describe petitioners crowding the road to the emperor's procession in protest. The tax was abolished again after Aurangzeb's death. It was one of the single most politically damaging acts of his reign — alienating Rajput nobles, Hindu merchants, and the broad mass of the empire's Hindu population.
Fatwa-i-Alamgiri: Codification of Islamic Law
The Fatwa-i-Alamgiri (also: Fatawa-e-Alamgiri) was compiled at Aurangzeb's direction between c. 1667 and 1672 CE — a comprehensive compendium of Islamic law according to the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence, produced by hundreds of Islamic scholars (ulama) working collectively under the supervision of Sheikh Nizam Burhanpuri. It covered all aspects of Muslim life: prayer, fasting, marriage, divorce, inheritance, commerce, and state law. It remains one of the largest and most comprehensive Islamic legal compendia ever produced.
Shivaji's Escape from Agra (1666)
In 1666 CE, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra as part of a diplomatic process following the Treaty of Purandar (1665), which the Mughal general Jai Singh had negotiated with Shivaji. At the Agra court, Shivaji was publicly humiliated — seated among officers of low rank rather than given the reception due a king. He stormed out and was placed under house arrest.
From house arrest, Shivaji engineered a famous escape: he sent out large baskets of sweets daily to holy men (fakirs) as charity. Eventually, he and his son Sambhaji hid in the baskets (or escaped disguised as sweet-bearers, depending on the tradition) and fled Agra. He returned to the Deccan, resumed his campaigns against the Mughals, and crowned himself Chhatrapati (Lord of the Umbrella — sovereign title) at Raigad in 1674 CE.
Aurangzeb's Deccan Campaigns (1682–1707)
Aurangzeb moved his entire court to the Deccan in 1682 CE and spent the last 25 years of his life there — never returning to Delhi or Agra. His objectives were: (1) absorb the remaining Deccan Sultanates; (2) crush Maratha resistance.
Deccan Wars: Key Events
| Event | Year | Detail |
|---|---|---|
| Bijapur conquered | 1686 | Adil Shahi Sultanate ended; Aurangzeb personally led |
| Golconda conquered | 1687 | Qutb Shahi Sultanate ended; Hyderabad taken; last independent Deccan sultanate absorbed |
| Sambhaji captured and killed | 1689 | Shivaji's son; captured by Mughal general Muqarrab Khan; publicly tortured and executed |
| Rajaram (Shivaji's 2nd son) resistance | 1689–1700 | Led Maratha guerrilla resistance from Jinji (Tamil Nadu); died 1700 |
| Tarabai's resistance | 1700–1707 | Rajaram's widow Tarabai led Maratha resistance; Aurangzeb could never crush it |
| Aurangzeb's death | 3 Mar 1707 | Died at Ahmadnagar; buried at Khuldabad (Aurangabad); deliberately chose a simple tomb |
Major Rebellions Under Aurangzeb
| Rebellion | Period | Leader | Cause |
|---|---|---|---|
| Jat Revolt | 1669–1707 (recurring) | Gokula (1669), Rajaram (1685), Churaman | Jaziya + repression of peasants around Mathura-Agra |
| Satnamis Revolt | 1672 | Satnami sect (Narnaul) | Local official's assault on a Satnami tradesman escalated |
| Sikh Revolt | 1675–1715 | Guru Tegh Bahadur (executed 1675), Guru Gobind Singh | Execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur by Aurangzeb; creation of Khalsa 1699 |
| Rajput Revolt | 1679–1681 | Durga Das Rathore (Marwar) | Jaziya reimposition + Aurangzeb's annexation of Marwar after Jaswant Singh's death |
| Maratha Resistance | 1660–1707 | Shivaji, Sambhaji, Rajaram, Tarabai | Mughal expansion into Deccan; Maratha independence |
Structural Causes of Mughal Decline
1. Aurangzeb's policies: Jaziya alienation; Deccan war drain; Rajput defection; Sikh militarisation; Maratha resistance impossible to crush.
2. Jagir crisis: More mansabdars than available productive jagirs; nobles given barren or remote jagirs; financial discontent of the nobility became structural.
3. Succession wars: No clear succession mechanism; every emperor's death triggered civil war (1707, 1712, 1713, 1719…), weakening central authority repeatedly.
4. Provincial governors' independence: After Aurangzeb, governors (subahdars) of Bengal, Hyderabad, Awadh became de facto hereditary rulers while nominally acknowledging Mughal sovereignty.
5. External invasions: Nadir Shah 1739 (sacked Delhi, took Peacock Throne and Koh-i-Noor); Ahmad Shah Abdali/Durrani multiple invasions 1748–1767; Battle of Panipat III 1761.
Previous Year Question · UPSC Prelims 2019
With reference to Aurangzeb, consider the following statements:
1. He executed Guru Tegh Bahadur, the 9th Sikh Guru, in 1675 CE.
2. He reimposed jaziya on non-Muslims in 1679 CE.
3. The Fatwa-i-Alamgiri was a historical chronicle compiled under his patronage.
Which of the above is/are correct?
Frequently Asked Questions
Why is Aurangzeb considered responsible for the decline of the Mughal Empire?
27-year Deccan wars drained treasury; jaziya reimposition (1679) alienated Rajputs, Marathas, Jats; temple destruction caused religious antagonism; jagir crisis as empire over-expanded; Sikh militarisation after Guru Tegh Bahadur's execution (1675); no capable successor — sons fought each other from 1707; structural overextension of the empire.
What was the Fatwa-i-Alamgiri?
A comprehensive compilation of Islamic law (fiqh) according to the Hanafi school of Sunni jurisprudence, compiled 1667–1672 CE at Aurangzeb's direction by hundreds of ulama under Sheikh Nizam Burhanpuri. It is a legal code covering all aspects of Muslim life. NOT a chronicle. Alternative name: Fatawa-e-Alamgiri.
Where is Aurangzeb buried?
Aurangzeb is buried at Khuldabad, near Aurangabad (Chhatrapati Sambhajinagar), Maharashtra. He died at Ahmadnagar on 3 March 1707. He chose a deliberately simple, unadorned open-air tomb — a contrast to the magnificent Mughal mausoleums of Humayun and Shah Jahan.