Later Mughals & Decline
From Aurangzeb's death to the last Mughal — a century of dissolution, invasion, and eclipse
Later Mughal Emperors: Quick Reference
After Aurangzeb's death in 1707 the Mughal Empire entered a terminal phase. Twelve emperors ruled in the following 150 years, most for short periods, many as puppets of nobles or foreign powers. The following table is the most-tested reference in UPSC on this topic:
| Emperor | Reign | Key Fact / Association |
|---|---|---|
| Bahadur Shah I (Shah Alam I) | 1707–1712 | Last dignified Mughal; reconciled with Rajputs and Marathas; gave Shahu his freedom |
| Jahandar Shah | 1712–1713 | Incompetent; killed by Farrukh Siyar; under influence of Lal Kunwar (concubine) |
| Farrukh Siyar | 1713–1719 | Syed Brothers' puppet; gave East India Company famous farman of 1717 (trading privileges); killed by Syed Brothers |
| Muhammad Shah "Rangeela" | 1719–1748 | Longest reigning later Mughal; Nadir Shah invasion 1739; Peacock Throne + Koh-i-Noor taken; Abdali's first invasion 1748 |
| Ahmad Shah | 1748–1754 | Son of Muhammad Shah; weak; deposed by Imad-ul-Mulk (minister) |
| Alamgir II | 1754–1759 | Murdered by Imad-ul-Mulk and Maratha chief |
| Shah Alam II | 1759–1806 | Battle of Buxar 1764; Treaty of Allahabad 1765 (Diwani to EIC); blinded by Ghulam Qadir Rohilla 1788; British protégé at Delhi from 1803 |
| Akbar Shah II | 1806–1837 | Gave Ram Mohan Roy the title "Raja"; nominal; gave Bahadur Shah Zafar the title Mirza |
| Bahadur Shah Zafar II | 1837–1857 | Last Mughal emperor; participated (nominally) in 1857 uprising; exiled to Rangoon; died 1862 |
Bahadur Shah I (1707–1712)
Bahadur Shah I (also called Shah Alam I), Aurangzeb's son, succeeded after the War of Succession in 1707. He was the last Mughal to exercise effective authority. He reversed several of Aurangzeb's alienating policies — reconciled with the Rajput chiefs, released Shahu from Mughal captivity (contributing to the Maratha recovery), and attempted to pacify the Sikhs after initially pursuing Banda Singh Bahadur's forces. He died in 1712 at Lahore, aged 69.
The Syed Brothers (1713–1720): Kingmakers
After Bahadur Shah I's death, a rapid succession crisis saw Jahandar Shah crowned (1712) and then killed by Farrukh Siyar in 1713 — aided by the powerful Syed Brothers: Abdullah Khan (Wazir) and Hussain Ali Khan (Mir Bakshi / Commander). The Syed Brothers effectively became the "kingmakers" of the Mughal Empire, making and unmaking emperors at will.
Under Farrukh Siyar (himself the Syed Brothers' puppet), the British East India Company obtained the celebrated Farman of 1717 — trading privileges across Bengal, Gujarat, and the Deccan, including exemption from customs duties in exchange for a lump sum. This farman was a major boost to British commercial expansion.
When Farrukh Siyar became too assertive, the Syed Brothers had him blinded, imprisoned, and strangled (1719). They then placed three short-lived emperors in quick succession before Muhammad Shah (1719) proved durable enough to eventually overthrow and execute the Syed Brothers in 1720 — with Maratha and Nizam support.
Muhammad Shah "Rangeela" (1719–1748)
Muhammad Shah was the longest-reigning later Mughal (29 years). He earned the nickname "Rangeela" (the colourful / pleasure-loving) for his hedonistic lifestyle. However, his long reign also witnessed the most catastrophic blow to Mughal prestige: Nadir Shah's invasion of 1739.
Significant developments under Muhammad Shah include: the rise of the Nizam of Hyderabad as a virtually independent power (Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah I became Nizam in 1724, founding the Hyderabad dynasty); Maratha expansion across the Deccan and into north India; and the emergence of Awadh under Sa'adat Khan as a semi-independent state.
He also oversaw the important administrative decision to appoint the scholar-poet Mir Taqi Mir and others at his court, contributing to the cultural florescence of the Urdu language in Delhi — though his personal dissipation is often cited as a metaphor for imperial decline.
Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739)
Nadir Shah Afsharid (ruler of Persia) invaded India in 1738–39, ostensibly on the pretext that the Mughals had sheltered Afghan fugitives. His real motivation was plunder — Mughal India was still immensely wealthy.
Battle of Karnal (13 February 1739)
Muhammad Shah marched to confront Nadir Shah but was decisively defeated at the Battle of Karnal on 13 February 1739. Nadir Shah captured Muhammad Shah and escorted him to Delhi.
Delhi Massacre (March 1739)
After entering Delhi, a rumour spread that Nadir Shah had been killed — Delhi's population attacked Persian soldiers. In retaliation, Nadir Shah ordered a general massacre of Delhi's population on 11 March 1739, known as the Qatl-i-Am (general slaughter). Tens of thousands were killed. The carnage continued until Muhammad Shah himself begged Nadir Shah to stop.
Loot and the Peacock Throne
Nadir Shah's forces stripped Delhi of its wealth — the haul was staggering: an estimated 70 crore rupees in cash plus jewels, goods, and art. Most famously:
| Item | Detail |
|---|---|
| Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus) | Shah Jahan's bejewelled throne, built by craftsman Be-badal Khan c.1628-35; taken by Nadir Shah to Persia; never returned to India |
| Koh-i-Noor diamond | Famous diamond; possibly worn in Muhammad Shah's turban; taken by Nadir Shah; later passed to the Sikh Empire under Ranjit Singh, then to the British Crown after 1849 |
| Total loot | Estimated at ₹70 crore (cash) + immeasurable jewels and goods; Nadir Shah reportedly exempted Persia from taxes for 3 years from the proceeds |
Nadir Shah's invasion destroyed the myth of Mughal invincibility. The annual revenue of the empire was reportedly exempted from collection for two years — the empire's finances were shattered. The psychological and fiscal blow accelerated provincial independence across the empire.
Ahmad Shah Abdali's Invasions (1748–1767)
Ahmad Shah Abdali (also known as Ahmad Shah Durrani), founder of the Durrani (Afghan) Empire, invaded India no fewer than eight times between 1748 and 1767. He is often considered one of the greatest military commanders in Afghan history.
| Invasion No. | Year | Key Event |
|---|---|---|
| 1st invasion | 1748 | Battle of Manupur — Mughals under Muhammad Shah + Mir Mannu defeated Abdali; Abdali withdrew (Muhammad Shah died shortly after) |
| 2nd invasion | 1749–50 | Secured Punjab and Multan; established Afghan control over northwest |
| 3rd invasion | 1751–52 | Treaty of 1752 — Mughal Emperor Ahmad Shah formally ceded Punjab and Sind to Abdali |
| 4th invasion | 1756–57 | Sacked Delhi again; placed Najib-ud-Daula (Rohilla) as his viceroy at Delhi; looted Mathura |
| 5th invasion | 1759–61 | Third Battle of Panipat (14 January 1761) — decisive defeat of Marathas |
| 6th–8th | 1764–67 | Suppressed Sikh resistance; but Sikh resurgence ultimately made Afghan control untenable |
Despite his repeated victories, Abdali was unable to hold India permanently. Sikh power in Punjab — the Sikh Misls — made it impossible to maintain stable Afghan governance east of the Khyber. By the time of his death in 1772, Abdali had effectively conceded that his empire could not extend to the Gangetic plain.
Shah Alam II (1759–1806)
Shah Alam II had a particularly turbulent reign. Before becoming emperor, he spent years as a fugitive from his own court. His reign saw the decisive shift of power to the British East India Company.
In 1761 Shah Alam II nominally aligned with the Marathas; after Panipat, the Marathas' decline removed his potential protectors. In 1764 he joined the anti-British coalition with the Nawab of Awadh and Mir Qasim — resulting in the Battle of Buxar.
In 1788, the Rohilla chief Ghulam Qadir seized Delhi, tortured Shah Alam II, and had him blinded — a shocking symbol of Mughal impotence. The Marathas under Mahadji Sindhia rescued Shah Alam II and executed Ghulam Qadir. From 1788 to 1803, Shah Alam II was effectively a Maratha protégé. After the Second Anglo-Maratha War, the British took Delhi in 1803 and Shah Alam II became a British pensioner for the last three years of his life.
Battle of Buxar (22 October 1764)
The Battle of Buxar is arguably more important than the Battle of Plassey (1757) for establishing British supremacy in India, though Plassey is more famous. The coalition arrayed against the British was far more formidable at Buxar.
Background
After Plassey, the British installed Mir Jafar and later Mir Qasim as Nawabs of Bengal. Mir Qasim proved to be an efficient ruler who resented British commercial privileges and attempted to reform his army. Disputes over misuse of the dastaks (free trade passes) led to war. Mir Qasim allied with Shuja-ud-Daula (Nawab of Awadh) and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II — forming a formidable tri-party coalition.
The Battle
On 22 October 1764, British forces under Hector Munro defeated the coalition at Buxar (Bihar). The coalition's coordination broke down; Munro's disciplined sepoy army was decisive.
| Side | Leaders |
|---|---|
| British East India Company | Hector Munro |
| Anti-British Coalition | Mir Qasim (Bengal) + Shuja-ud-Daula (Awadh) + Shah Alam II (Mughal Emperor) |
Treaty of Allahabad (1765)
The aftermath was settled by the Treaty of Allahabad (12 August 1765), negotiated by Robert Clive:
| Party | Treaty Terms |
|---|---|
| Shah Alam II | Granted Diwani (revenue collection rights) of Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha to the East India Company in exchange for a pension of 26 lakh rupees annually and Kora-Allahabad territory |
| Shuja-ud-Daula (Awadh) | Paid war indemnity of 50 lakh rupees; ceded Allahabad and Kora to the emperor; Awadh retained but became British ally |
| Significance | Company became Diwan of Bengal — the constitutional basis for British Indian revenue collection; "Company Bahadur" now the real power in eastern India |
Bahadur Shah Zafar II — The Last Mughal (1837–1857)
Bahadur Shah Zafar II (born 1775) was the last Mughal emperor. By the time of his accession in 1837, the Mughal emperor controlled only the Red Fort in Delhi — a pensioner of the British East India Company receiving a stipend. He was primarily known as a gifted Urdu poet (famous couplets: "Lagta nahin hai dil mera ujde dayar mein") and calligrapher.
During the Revolt of 1857, the sepoys who mutinied at Meerut marched to Delhi and proclaimed Bahadur Shah Zafar as the symbolic leader of the uprising — giving the revolt a pan-Indian legitimacy it might otherwise have lacked. Zafar was reluctant and elderly (82 years old) but acquiesced. He was nominally Emperor of Hindustan for a few months.
British forces recaptured Delhi in September 1857. Bahadur Shah Zafar surrendered at Humayun's Tomb. His sons (Mirza Mughal, Mirza Khizr Sultan, Mirza Abu Bakr) were summarily executed by British officer William Hodson at the Khooni Darwaza (Bloody Gate), Delhi. Zafar was tried and exiled to Rangoon (Yangon), Burma.
Causes of Mughal Decline
UPSC frequently asks about the causes of Mughal decline — both in Prelims (statement-based) and Mains. The key structural and contingent factors are:
Structural / Long-term Causes
| Cause | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Jagir Crisis | Under Aurangzeb, the number of mansabdars increased dramatically but the total jagir land available remained constant or shrank (Deccan revenues were uncertain). Mansabdars received smaller or no jagirs → pay shortfall → military disloyalty and corruption |
| Succession Wars | Absence of primogeniture meant every emperor's death triggered civil war among sons, destroying military resources and producing weak successors. Aurangzeb's own war of succession depleted the empire before he took the throne. |
| Religious/Alienation Policy | Aurangzeb's jaziya, temple destruction, and music ban alienated Rajputs, Marathas, Jats, and Sikhs — turning former imperial pillars into rebels. The cost of suppressing these rebellions drained the treasury. |
| Provincial Independence | As the centre weakened, provincial governors (Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal) became hereditary rulers paying nominal obeisance. The revenue no longer flowed to Delhi; the imperial army could not be maintained. |
| Deccan Quagmire | Aurangzeb spent 27 years in the Deccan (1681–1707) pursuing an ultimately futile campaign. The northern empire was neglected; agrarian revolts (Jat, Satnamis) were insufficiently suppressed. As Jadunath Sarkar observed, Aurangzeb "ruined himself fighting the Deccan." |
| External Invasions | Nadir Shah (1739) stripped the treasury and destroyed Mughal prestige; Ahmad Shah Abdali's repeated invasions (1748–67) prevented any recovery in the northwest |
| Rise of Regional Powers | Marathas, Sikhs, Rajputs, Jats, and eventually the British carved out independent spheres, leaving the Mughal emperor with diminishing territory and revenue |
The Maratha challenge to Mughal power — examined in the companion articles on Shivaji and the Maratha Peshwas — was both a symptom and a cause of Mughal decline, as Maratha Chauth collections diverted revenue that would otherwise have funded the Mughal army.
UPSC CSE Prelims 2019: With reference to the later Mughal emperors, consider the following statements: (1) Farrukh Siyar was the first Mughal emperor to grant a firman to the British giving them trading concessions in Bengal. (2) Muhammad Shah was the last Mughal emperor to lead a military campaign. (3) Shah Alam II was blinded by a Rohilla chief. Which are correct?
Answer: (1) and (3). Statement (2) is debated — Muhammad Shah personally led the battle of Manupur (1748) but "last" is contestable. (3) is definitively correct: Ghulam Qadir blinded Shah Alam II in 1788.
UPSC CSE Prelims 2015: The Battle of Buxar was significant because: (a) it gave the British the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Odisha; (b) it was won by Robert Clive; (c) it was a conspiracy like Plassey.
Answer: (a) — The Battle of Buxar led to the Treaty of Allahabad 1765 granting Diwani. The battle was won by Hector Munro, NOT Clive (Clive negotiated the treaty but did not command at the battle). It was NOT a conspiracy — it was a genuine battle against a real coalition.