The Rashtrakuta Dynasty — Overview
The Rashtrakutas ruled from their capital Manyakheta (Malkhed) in modern Gulbarga district, Karnataka, from 753 CE until 973 CE — approximately 220 years. They were feudatories of the Chalukyas of Vatapi before overthrowing them and became, at their peak, the dominant power of the entire Indian subcontinent's interior — north, south, and centre.
| King | Reign | Key Achievement |
|---|---|---|
| Dantidurga | c. 735–756 CE | Overthrew Chalukya Kirtivarman II; performed Hiranyagarbha (golden womb) sacrifice; founded the dynasty |
| Krishna I | c. 756–773 CE | Built Kailasanatha temple Ellora (Cave 16) |
| Dhruva Dharavarsha | c. 780–793 CE | First Rashtrakuta to defeat all three powers of the tripartite struggle |
| Govinda III | c. 793–814 CE | Greatest military king; defeated Gurjara-Pratiharas and Palas in north; subdued all of south India |
| Amoghavarsha I | c. 814–878 CE | Longest-reigning Rashtrakuta; Kavirajamarga; Jain patron; "Ashoka of the south" |
| Krishna II | c. 878–914 CE | Military reverses; Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi became powerful |
| Indra III | c. 914–929 CE | Sacked Kanauj; most northward Rashtrakuta advance; Al-Masudi visited |
| Krishna III | c. 939–967 CE | Last great king; defeated Chola Parantaka I at Battle of Takkolam (949 CE) |
Dantidurga — Founder of the Dynasty
Dantidurga (c. 735–756 CE) was a powerful feudatory of the Chalukyas of Vatapi who gradually gained independent power. Around 753 CE, he defeated the last Chalukya king Kirtivarman II and occupied the Deccan. To legitimise his rule, Dantidurga performed the Hiranyagarbha (Golden Womb) ceremony — a Brahmanical ritual that symbolically "reborn" the patron as a Kshatriya, establishing royal legitimacy for a non-Kshatriya ruler. His Samangad copper plates record his victories and titles.
Krishna I and the Ellora Kailasanatha
Krishna I (c. 756–773 CE) is remembered primarily for commissioning the most ambitious rock-cut monument in the ancient world — the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora. He also successfully consolidated Rashtrakuta power over the Deccan.
The Kailasanatha Temple — Ellora Cave 16
— Dynasty: Rashtrakuta (NOT Pallava — the Kailasanatha at Kanchipuram is Pallava)
— Builder: Krishna I (c. 757–773 CE)
— Location: Ellora, Cave 16, Aurangabad district, Maharashtra
— Method: Carved TOP-DOWN from a single basalt hillside — not tunnelled in from the front
— Scale: 164 feet long, 109 feet wide, 98 feet tall — estimated 200,000 tonnes of rock removed
— Record: Largest monolithic rock-cut structure in the world
The Kailasanatha was designed to replicate Mount Kailash — Shiva's Himalayan abode — in stone. The complex includes a gateway (gopura), a Nandi mandapa, the main Shiva temple with its massive vimana (tower), subsidiary shrines for Devi and the river goddesses, a circumambulatory passage, and panels depicting Ravana shaking Mount Kailash while Parvati clings to Shiva — one of the most dramatic relief compositions in Indian art.
All previous rock-cut monuments (Barabar, Ajanta, Pallava cave temples) were carved horizontally inward from a cliff face. The Ellora Kailasanatha was planned and executed differently: workers began at the TOP of the rock and carved downward, removing the overburden first, then sculpting the superstructure, then the mandapas, then the base — the reverse of how structural temples are built. This required the entire temple to be mentally complete before the first cut was made. A Rashtrakuta inscription says even the architect cried "How could this have been done by human hands?"
Ellora itself contains 34 caves: Caves 1–12 are Buddhist, Caves 13–29 are Hindu, and Caves 30–34 are Jain — spanning roughly the 5th to 11th centuries CE. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (1983). The Chalukya artistic tradition at Badami, Aihole, and Pattadakal directly inspired and fed into the Rashtrakuta achievement at Ellora.
Govinda III — The Conquering King
Govinda III is the greatest military figure of the Rashtrakuta dynasty. His campaigns reached into every corner of the subcontinent:
- North: Defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king Nagabhata II and the Pala king Dharmapala; carried his victorious banner to the Himalayas (inscriptions claim)
- South: Subdued the Gangas, Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas; reached Kanyakumari
- East: Brought Bengal under tributary status
The Tripartite Struggle for Kanauj
From approximately the late 8th to the mid-10th century, three powers competed for control of Kanauj — the most symbolically important city in northern India (former capital of Harsha, seen as the gateway to Indo-Gangetic supremacy):
| Power | Base | Role in Struggle |
|---|---|---|
| Gurjara-Pratiharas | Rajasthan / West India | Generally held Kanauj for the longest periods; protected the northwest from Arab incursions |
| Palas | Bengal / Bihar | Buddhist dynasty; Dharmapala held Kanauj briefly; great patrons of Nalanda and Vikramashila |
| Rashtrakutas | Deccan | Repeatedly raided and sacked Kanauj; Govinda III and Indra III both humiliated northern powers |
Amoghavarsha I (c. 814–878 CE)
Amoghavarsha I reigned for approximately 64 years — the longest reign of any Rashtrakuta king — and preferred cultural achievement to military conquest. He is called the "Ashoka of the south" for his non-violent, welfare-oriented rule. He was a devoted Jain and is said to have cut off his finger as an offering to the goddess Mahalakshmi during a severe crisis (famine or rebellion), performing an extreme act of Jain devotional self-sacrifice.
The Kavirajamarga and Kannada Literature
Amoghavarsha also wrote the Ratnamalika, a Jain devotional text. Under his patronage, the Kannada literary tradition was firmly established as a court language alongside Sanskrit.
Indra III and the Sack of Kanauj
Indra III (c. 914–929 CE) conducted the most dramatic Rashtrakuta military action in the north: the sack of Kanauj — the symbolic heartland of northern Indian sovereignty. He defeated the Gurjara-Pratihara king Mahipala and devastated Kanauj. This is the period of the Arab geographer Al-Masudi's visit to India.
Al-Masudi's Testimony
The Arab geographer and traveller Al-Masudi visited India around 916 CE and described the Rashtrakuta king in his work Muruj al-Dhahab ("Meadows of Gold"). He named four of the world's greatest kings and included the Rashtrakuta king among them — placing Indian political prestige on par with the Abbasid Caliphs, the Byzantine Emperor, and the Chinese Emperor. This is the most celebrated external validation of Rashtrakuta power and is tested in UPSC questions about foreign accounts of Indian rulers.
Decline and Fall (973 CE)
The Rashtrakutas declined after Krishna III's reign (939–967 CE). Repeated wars on multiple fronts — the tripartite struggle in the north, the Cholas in the south — drained resources. In 973 CE, the Rashtrakuta king was overthrown by Tailapa II (Taila II), a feudatory who revived the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani — another Chalukya branch. The Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi had already been consolidating in the east. The Rashtrakuta dynasty's end opened the final phase of medieval Deccan history, dominated by the Cholas under Rajaraja I and Rajendra I.
With reference to the Rashtrakuta dynasty, consider the following statements:
1. The Kailasanatha temple at Ellora was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I.
2. Amoghavarsha I authored the Kavirajamarga, the first major literary work in Kannada.
3. The Rashtrakutas were defeated by the Cholas in the 10th century and replaced as Deccan rulers.
Statement 1: CORRECT — Krishna I built Ellora Cave 16 (Kailasanatha). Statement 2: CORRECT — Amoghavarsha I authored Kavirajamarga c. 850 CE. Statement 3: FALSE — The Rashtrakutas were overthrown by Tailapa II (Western Chalukyas of Kalyani) in 973 CE, not by the Cholas.
With reference to the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. It was carved from a single basalt hillside from the top downward.
2. It was built by a Pallava king as a counterpart to the Shore Temple at Mamallapuram.
3. It is considered the largest monolithic rock-cut temple in the world.
Statement 1: CORRECT — top-down carving method, 200,000 tonnes of rock removed. Statement 2: FALSE — built by Rashtrakuta king Krishna I, not a Pallava king. (The Kailasanatha at Kanchipuram is Pallava.) Statement 3: CORRECT — largest monolithic rock-cut temple in the world.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who built the Kailasanatha at Ellora and how was it carved?
Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (c. 757–773 CE). It was carved TOP-DOWN from a single basalt hillside — not tunnelled inward. About 200,000 tonnes of rock were removed. It is the world's largest monolithic rock-cut temple. Do not confuse with the Kailasanatha at Kanchipuram (Pallava, structural stone).
What is the Kavirajamarga and who wrote it?
Amoghavarsha I wrote the Kavirajamarga (c. 850 CE) — the first major literary work in the Kannada language, specifically a text on poetic style and criticism.
Who were the three parties in the tripartite struggle?
Gurjara-Pratiharas (Rajasthan), Palas (Bengal/Bihar), and Rashtrakutas (Deccan) — all competing for control of Kanauj from c. 8th to 10th century CE.
How did the Rashtrakuta dynasty end?
In 973 CE, feudatory Tailapa II (Taila II) overthrew the last Rashtrakuta king and revived the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani. The Cholas did not end the Rashtrakutas.