Founding of the Vijayanagara Empire (1336 CE)
The Vijayanagara Empire was founded in 1336 CE by two brothers, Harihara I (Hakka) and Bukka Raya I, at a site on the southern bank of the Tungabhadra river in present-day Karnataka. The city they built — Vijayanagara ("City of Victory") — is known today as Hampi.
According to tradition, Harihara and Bukka had been officers of the Kampili kingdom (a small Hindu kingdom in the Deccan) which was overrun by Muhammad bin Tughlaq's forces. Captured and brought to Delhi, they were reportedly converted to Islam and sent back as governors of their former territory. The sage Vidyaranya (identified with Madhavacharya, the Advaita philosopher and head of the Sringeri Math) inspired them to re-convert to Hinduism and establish a kingdom dedicated to resisting Muslim expansion in the south.
Four Dynasties of Vijayanagara
| Dynasty | Period | Key Kings / Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Sangama | 1336–1485 | Founded by Harihara I and Bukka I; Devaraya II (most powerful early king, defeated Bahmani) |
| Saluva | 1485–1505 | Saluva Narasimha; shorter dynasty; transitional |
| Tuluva | 1505–1570 | Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) — greatest Vijayanagara king; Tuluva dynasty |
| Aravidu | 1570–1646 | Aliya Rama Raya (regent who was killed at Talikota); post-Talikota survival with shifted capitals |
Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529 CE) — The Golden Age
Krishnadevaraya is universally regarded as the greatest ruler of the Vijayanagara Empire. He belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. His reign is described as the golden age of Vijayanagara — militarily invincible, commercially prosperous, and culturally brilliant.
Military Campaigns
- Defeated the Bidar and Bijapur Sultanates, temporarily capturing their capitals
- Decisively defeated the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa at the Battle of Diwani (1512 CE) — pushed the Gajapati boundary far north
- Friendly relations with the Portuguese at Goa (Albuquerque era) — purchased horses from Portuguese traders, allowing him to rebuild the cavalry after Deccan Sultanate disruption of horse trade
- Never lost a major battle during his reign
Literature — Amuktamalyada and the Ashtadiggajas
Krishnadevaraya was himself a poet of the first rank. He wrote Amuktamalyada ("She Who Wears a Garland of Never-Wilting Flowers") in Telugu — a poem on the love of the goddess Andal (Goda Devi) for Vishnu, widely considered the finest classical Telugu poem. He also wrote in Sanskrit.
He maintained the Ashtadiggajas ("Eight Elephants of the Eight Directions") — eight outstanding Telugu poets at his court:
| Poet | Notable Work |
|---|---|
| Allasani Peddana | Manucharitra (Telugu); called "Andhra Kavita Pitamaha" (grandfather of Telugu poetry) |
| Nandi Thimmana | Parijatapaharanamu |
| Madayyagari Mallana | Rajasekhara Charitramu |
| Dhurjati | Kalahasteeswara Mahatmyamu |
| Ayyalaraju Ramambhadrudu | Ramaabhyudayamu |
| Pingali Surana | Kalapurnodayamu |
| Ramaraja Bhushana | Vasucharitra |
| Tenali Rama(krishna) | Poet and wit; famous in legend as the court jester/advisor |
The name of the group is Ashtadiggajas (eight directional elephants). The most important member is Allasani Peddana — called "Andhra Kavita Pitamaha." The most famous in legend (not necessarily literature) is Tenali Ramakrishna. UPSC sometimes asks who wrote Amuktamalyada — it was Krishnadevaraya himself, not any of the Ashtadiggajas.
Hampi — Capital and Monuments
The capital city of Hampi (the Vijayanagara city site) was one of the largest cities in the world during the 15th–16th centuries CE. Estimates of its population range from 500,000 to over 1 million. Portuguese visitors described it as larger than Lisbon.
| Monument | Dynasty/King | Significance |
|---|---|---|
| Vitthala Temple | Tuluva period (Krishnadevaraya era) | The stone chariot (Garuda shrine in chariot form) in its courtyard is the most iconic image of Vijayanagara; musical pillars; considered finest Vijayanagara architecture |
| Hazara Rama Temple | Devaraya II/Krishnadevaraya era | Royal chapel; walls covered with friezes depicting scenes from the Ramayana |
| Virupaksha Temple | Pre-Vijayanagara; extended by all dynasties | The oldest and still-functioning temple at Hampi; dedicated to Shiva as Virupaksha |
| Lotus Mahal / Zenana Enclosure | Tuluva period | Indo-Islamic pavilion style within a Vijayanagara context |
| Elephant Stables | Tuluva period | 11 chambers for royal elephants; Indo-Islamic domed arches |
Hampi is a UNESCO World Heritage Site — "Group of Monuments at Hampi" inscribed in 1986.
Nayanka (Nayak) System of Administration
The Vijayanagara administrative system was organised around the Nayanka system — the defining feature of Vijayanagara governance:
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Amara-Nayaka | A military chief who received an amara (territory) in return for military service |
| Amara | The territory assigned to a Nayaka; he collected revenue from it |
| Obligation | Maintain infantry, cavalry, and a war elephant contingent; pay tribute to the king; provide military service |
| Ayagar system | Village-level: 12 functionaries (ayagars) served the village collectively — including the headman, accountant, watchman, potter, blacksmith, carpenter, etc.; paid in land grants rather than cash |
Economy and Trade
Vijayanagara was one of the wealthiest empires of 15th–16th century Asia. Key economic features:
- Horse trade: Horses (not bred in the Deccan) were crucial for military power and imported from Arabia and Central Asia via Portuguese/Arab traders. Krishnadevaraya's friendly relations with the Portuguese gave him access to superior horses.
- Cotton textiles: Exported to Southeast Asia and West Asia; known for fine Golconda and Coromandel cotton.
- Spices: Pepper and other spices exported westward via Malabar ports.
- Gems: The Deccan was known for diamonds (Golconda diamond mines); trade through Vijayanagara-era ports.
- The bazar streets of Hampi described by Abdur Razzaq (Persian visitor) as the most magnificent he had ever seen — selling pearls, rubies, emeralds, diamonds, cloth, and food.
Foreign Visitors to Vijayanagara
| Visitor | Nationality | Period | Account |
|---|---|---|---|
| Nicolo Conti | Italian | c. 1420 CE | Earliest foreign account of Vijayanagara; visited during Devaraya I era |
| Abdur Razzaq | Persian | 1443 CE | Ambassador from Shah Rukh (Timurid); vivid description of Hampi's markets; visited during Devaraya II's reign |
| Athanasius Nikitin | Russian | c. 1470 CE | Russian merchant; one of the earliest Russian travellers to India; visited during Sangama dynasty |
| Domingo Paes | Portuguese | c. 1520 CE | Portuguese traveller; the most detailed description of Krishnadevaraya's court and Hampi; contemporary eyewitness |
| Fernao Nuniz | Portuguese | c. 1535 CE | Portuguese horse trader; wrote a chronicle of Vijayanagara history |
Battle of Talikota (23 January 1565 CE)
The Battle of Talikota (also called the Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi — named after two villages near the battlefield, Rakshasi and Tangadi) was fought between the Vijayanagara forces under Aliya Rama Raya and a coalition of four Deccan Sultanates.
| Aspect | Detail |
|---|---|
| Date | 23 January 1565 CE |
| Vijayanagara commander | Aliya Rama Raya (regent; effectively ruler) |
| Deccan coalition | Bijapur (Adil Shahi) + Ahmadnagar (Nizam Shahi) + Bidar (Barid Shahi) + Golconda (Qutb Shahi) |
| Outcome | Vijayanagara defeated; Aliya Rama Raya killed in battle (captured and beheaded by Hussain Nizam Shah) |
| Aftermath | Confederate army marched on Hampi; sacked and looted the city over several months; Hampi never reoccupied as capital |
| Why Vijayanagara lost | Betrayal by two Muslim contingents within Vijayanagara army (according to some accounts); artillery superiority of the Deccan Sultanates; Aliya Rama Raya's policy of interfering in Deccan Sultanate politics had united them against him |
The coalition at Talikota was four Deccan Sultanates: Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, and Golconda. The fifth Deccan Sultanate — Berar — was not part of the coalition (it had largely been absorbed by Ahmadnagar by this point). UPSC options sometimes list "all five Deccan Sultanates" — this is incorrect.
Aftermath and Decline
After Talikota, the empire technically survived under the Aravidu dynasty with capitals at Penugonda, then Chandragiri, then Vellore — but it was a pale shadow. The Nayakas, who had been loyal military governors, became increasingly independent: the Nayaks of Tanjavur, Madurai, and Ikkeri effectively became independent rulers. The last Aravidu king died c. 1646 CE.
As covered in the Bahmani Sultanate article, the Deccan Sultanates that defeated Vijayanagara were themselves fragmented and were eventually absorbed by the expanding Mughal Empire under Aurangzeb.
📝 UPSC Prelims PYQ — 2020
Consider the following statements about the Vijayanagara Empire:
1. Krishnadevaraya wrote the Amuktamalyada, a Telugu poem on the love of the goddess Andal for Vishnu.
2. The Ashtadiggajas were eight outstanding Telugu poets patronised by Krishnadevaraya at his court.
3. The Vitthala temple at Hampi, with its famous stone chariot, was built by Krishnadevaraya.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Statement 1: Correct. Krishnadevaraya wrote the Amuktamalyada in Telugu.
Statement 2: Correct. The Ashtadiggajas (eight Telugu poets) were patronised by Krishnadevaraya.
Statement 3: Partially incorrect / debated. The Vitthala temple complex was begun under earlier kings and developed over several reigns; attributing it entirely to Krishnadevaraya is an oversimplification. The stone chariot in its courtyard is generally associated with the Tuluva period but not exclusively with Krishnadevaraya's personal construction. UPSC marks this as incorrect.
📝 UPSC Prelims PYQ — 2022
Consider the following statements about the Battle of Talikota (1565 CE):
1. The battle was fought between the Vijayanagara Empire and all five Deccan Sultanates — Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Golconda, and Berar.
2. Aliya Rama Raya, who commanded the Vijayanagara forces, was killed in the battle.
3. After the battle, Hampi was sacked and was never again used as the Vijayanagara capital.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Statement 1: Incorrect. The coalition was four Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Golconda) — NOT all five. Berar was not a major participant.
Statement 2: Correct. Aliya Rama Raya was captured and beheaded on the battlefield by Hussain Nizam Shah of Ahmadnagar.
Statement 3: Correct. Hampi was sacked and abandoned; the capital shifted to Penugonda and later Chandragiri.
Frequently Asked Questions
Who founded the Vijayanagara Empire?
Harihara I (Hakka) and Bukka Raya I — two brothers — founded Vijayanagara in 1336 CE at Hampi on the Tungabhadra river. The sage Vidyaranya (Madhavacharya) is traditionally credited as the spiritual inspiration for the empire's founding.
What was the Battle of Talikota and why was it significant?
Battle of Talikota (23 January 1565 CE): Vijayanagara under Aliya Rama Raya vs. four Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Bidar, Golconda). Aliya Rama Raya was killed; Hampi was sacked. The empire never recovered — marking the end of Vijayanagara's dominance in South India.
What was the Nayanka system?
Military chiefs (Nayakas) received territory (amara) in return for maintaining troops and paying tribute. They combined revenue collection, military command, and civil administration. After Talikota, Nayakas became independent — founding the Nayak kingdoms of Tanjavur, Madurai, and Ikkeri.