Non-Cooperation & Khilafat Movement (1920–1922)

§1 — Timeline

Timeline of Key Events

§2 — Government of India Act 1919

Government of India Act 1919 (Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms)

The Government of India Act 1919, also called the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, received Royal Assent on 23 December 1919. It implemented (partially) the August Declaration of 1917 promising "responsible government."

Key Features

• Diarchy (dual government) at the provincial level — provincial subjects divided into "Reserved" (Governor + officials, e.g., police, finance, justice) and "Transferred" (Indian ministers responsible to legislature, e.g., education, agriculture, public health).
• Bicameral central legislature: Council of State (60 members) + Central Legislative Assembly (145 members).
• Direct election introduced for some seats (replacing electoral colleges).
• Communal electorates extended — Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Anglo-Indians.
• Voting franchise based on property — about 10% of adult population.
• Office of High Commissioner for India created in London.
• Public Service Commission (created 1926, R.K. Lee Commission recommendation).

Indian Reaction

The Act disappointed nationalist opinion:

• Diarchy was unworkable in practice (the Indian ministers controlled "transferred" subjects but the Governor held purse-strings).
• Limited franchise — only the propertied minority voted.
• Communal electorates entrenched division.
• Real power remained with British officials.

Tilak called the reforms "unworthy and disappointing — a sunless dawn". The INC at the Amritsar Session (December 1919, presided by Motilal Nehru) condemned them as "inadequate, unsatisfactory, and disappointing."

§3 — The Khilafat Movement

The Khilafat Movement (1919–1924)

Background

For Sunni Muslims worldwide, the Ottoman Sultan in Istanbul was the Khalifa (Caliph) — successor to the Prophet Muhammad and head of the global Muslim community (umma). After the Ottoman Empire's defeat in WWI, the victors (Britain, France, Greece) sought to dismember the empire, occupying Constantinople and proposing to deprive the Sultan-Caliph of his temporal authority.

Indian Muslims — about 70 million — were deeply alarmed. They feared (a) the abolition of the Caliphate; (b) loss of Muslim control over Islamic holy sites (Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem); (c) the symbolic humiliation of the world's foremost Muslim power.

Khilafat Conference and Committee

The All-India Khilafat Committee was formed in November 1919 at Bombay. Leaders:

• Maulana Mohammad Ali Jauhar (1878–1931) and his brother Maulana Shaukat Ali — released from internment in 1919.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad (1888–1958) — editor of Al-Hilal and Al-Balagh; later Congress President 1923 (youngest then) and 1940–46.
• Hakim Ajmal Khan (1865–1927) — Delhi-based scholar.
• Hasrat Mohani — first to demand Purna Swaraj (December 1921 Ahmedabad).
• Dr M.A. Ansari.

The first All-India Khilafat Conference at Delhi on 23 November 1919 was attended by Mahatma Gandhi.

Gandhi-Khilafat Alliance

Gandhi saw the Khilafat issue as a unique opportunity to forge Hindu-Muslim unity on an emotional Muslim grievance. He proposed an alliance: the Khilafat Committee should support Indian self-rule; Gandhi and the Congress would support the Khilafat cause. This was unprecedented — a Hindu leader joining a religious Muslim cause.

At the Khilafat Conference at Allahabad on 1–2 June 1920, Gandhi proposed Non-Cooperation as the joint method. The Khilafat Committee accepted.

Treaty of Sèvres (10 August 1920)

The Treaty of Sèvres, signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Sultan on 10 August 1920, dismembered Ottoman territory: Greek control of western Anatolia, Italian and French zones, Armenian and Kurdish autonomy, loss of all Arab provinces. Indian Muslim outrage peaked. The Khilafat Committee was ready for radical action — and Gandhi launched Non-Cooperation.

§4 — Launch of Non-Cooperation

Launch of Non-Cooperation Movement (1 August 1920)

Gandhi formally launched the Non-Cooperation Movement on 1 August 1920 with a public statement and the return of his Kaiser-i-Hind medal (received for his Boer War ambulance work) and the Zulu War medal.

Tilak died on the same day, 1 August 1920, in Bombay. The torch had passed.

Calcutta Special Session (September 1920)

The Special Session of the INC at Calcutta in September 1920 was presided by Lala Lajpat Rai. Gandhi's resolution for Non-Cooperation was passed despite resistance from Moderates. Major opponents: C.R. Das, Bipin Chandra Pal, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Annie Besant, Jinnah. Major supporters: Motilal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai, Maulana Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan.

Nagpur Session (December 1920)

The annual Nagpur Session in December 1920, presided by C. Vijayaraghavachariar, ratified the Non-Cooperation programme — this time with C.R. Das now supporting (after his initial opposition). Major outcomes:

• Non-Cooperation programme formally adopted.
• Goal of Congress changed from "self-government within the Empire" to "Swaraj" by all peaceful and legitimate means.
• Linguistic reorganisation of Congress provincial committees (replacing the British-administrative provinces).
• Working Committee (Congress executive) created.
• Membership fee of 4 annas annually — making Congress affordable to peasants and workers.
• M.A. Jinnah resigned from Congress in protest.

§5 — The Programme of Non-Cooperation

Programme of Non-Cooperation

Negative Programme — Boycott

• Surrender of titles and honours conferred by the British.
• Boycott of legislatures (the new Mont-Ford councils) — refusing to contest or vote.
• Boycott of government schools and colleges; students to leave.
• Boycott of British courts; lawyers to give up practice.
• Boycott of foreign cloth (Manchester); use swadeshi.
• Refusal to serve British in Mesopotamia.

Positive Programme — Constructive Work

• National schools and colleges: Jamia Millia Islamia (29 October 1920, Aligarh — moved to Delhi 1925); Kashi Vidyapeeth (Banaras, 10 February 1921, Bhagwan Das); Bihar Vidyapeeth (Patna); Gujarat Vidyapeeth (Ahmedabad, 18 October 1920); Tilak Maharashtra Vidyapeeth (Pune); Aligarh National Muslim University.
• National panchayats as alternative courts.
• Promotion of khadi — Gandhi's spinning wheel (charkha) became an iconic symbol; A.I.C.C. created a Khadi Pratishthan.
• Hindu-Muslim unity.
• Removal of untouchability.
• Temperance / prohibition — picketing of liquor shops.
• Tilak Swarajya Fund — Gandhi pledged to raise ₹1 crore in 6 months; achieved on 6 August 1921.
• Membership target: 1 crore members for the Congress.
• Spinning of 20 lakh charkhas.

§6 — Course of the Movement

Course of the Movement (1920–22)

Mass Participation

The movement saw unprecedented mass participation:

• Hundreds of thousands of students left government schools and colleges.
• About 5,000 lawyers gave up practice — including Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Vallabhbhai Patel, Asaf Ali, Saifuddin Kitchlew, M.R. Jayakar, Rajendra Prasad.
• Bonfires of foreign cloth in cities; Manchester cotton imports fell 25%.
• Title-holders surrendered titles — including Gandhi's Kaiser-i-Hind, Jamnalal Bajaj's Rai Bahadur.
• Khadi production tripled.
• Picketing of liquor shops drastically reduced government excise revenue.

Regional Mobilisations

• UP: Eka Movement in Hardoi, Bahraich (peasant agrarian agitation), led by Madari Pasi.
• Awadh: Kisan Sabha movement under Baba Ramchandra; Pratapgarh peasants attacked taluqdari houses.
• Punjab: Akali Movement / Gurdwara Reform against corrupt mahants; Nankana Sahib massacre (20 February 1921 — 130 Akalis killed).
• Assam: tea garden labour strikes; "Chargola exodus" of May 1921 — 8,000 plantation workers walked off.
• Andhra: Forest Satyagraha — peasant resistance to British forest laws.
• Kerala: Mappila Rebellion (Malabar Rebellion) in August 1921 — Khilafat agitation turned violent; 600+ casualties; British retaliation including the infamous Wagon Tragedy of 19 November 1921 (61 Mappila prisoners suffocated to death in a sealed railway wagon, Tirur to Podanur).
• Tamil Nadu: Strikes by railway workers and others.

Prince of Wales Visit (November 1921)

The Prince of Wales (later Edward VIII) arrived at Bombay on 17 November 1921. The Congress called for a complete hartal — Bombay observed a total shutdown. Communal violence broke out (Bombay riots) — Gandhi was distressed and undertook a brief fast.

December 1921 Ahmedabad Congress

The Ahmedabad Annual Session of the INC in December 1921 was presided by C.R. Das in absentia (he was in jail) — Hakim Ajmal Khan presided in his place. Major decisions:

• Authorised Gandhi to launch civil disobedience (a step beyond Non-Cooperation).
• Hasrat Mohani's resolution for "Complete Independence" (Purna Swaraj) was rejected — but it was the first time the demand was raised at a Congress session.

By early 1922, government estimates suggested over 30,000 Congress workers were in jail.

Gandhi's Bardoli Ultimatum (1 February 1922)

From Bardoli, Gujarat, on 1 February 1922, Gandhi sent an ultimatum to Viceroy Lord Reading demanding the release of political prisoners and lifting of repression in 7 days, failing which he would launch full civil disobedience starting from Bardoli taluka.

§7 — The Chauri Chaura Incident (5 February 1922)

The Chauri Chaura Incident (5 February 1922)

Sequence of Events

On 5 February 1922 at Chauri Chaura village, Gorakhpur district, UP:

• A procession of about 2,500 volunteers (mostly peasants associated with Khilafat-NCM) had gathered to picket a liquor shop and protest food-price rises.
• The local police, under Sub-Inspector Prithvi Pal, abused and beat some volunteers earlier in the day.
• Returning to the police station, the procession was confronted by police firing in the air.
• When ammunition ran low, the police retreated into the police chowki.
• The enraged crowd set the chowki on fire.
• 22 policemen were burnt alive (some sources: 23). Among them: Prithvi Pal himself.

Trial

The British retaliation was severe. 225 villagers were tried at the Chauri Chaura Sessions Trial; 172 were sentenced to death initially. The Allahabad High Court reduced this to 19 death sentences (carried out 2 July 1923) and various transportation/imprisonment sentences for the rest. Madan Mohan Malaviya defended the accused at the High Court.

Gandhi's Reaction

Gandhi was deeply shaken. He fasted for five days. On 12 February 1922, the Congress Working Committee at Bardoli passed the Bardoli Resolution — withdrawing the entire Non-Cooperation Movement. Gandhi declared: "The God of Truth had warned me. I have been dragged to the brink of civil war by the Chauri Chaura incident." He also said: "I would risk being deemed mad to a million, but I knew before God that I was perfectly sane."

§8 — Withdrawal and Aftermath

Withdrawal and Aftermath

Reactions to Withdrawal

The withdrawal was unilateral and extremely controversial:

• C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Lala Lajpat Rai, Subhash Bose (then in jail), Jawaharlal Nehru (then in jail) all opposed the withdrawal.
• Many felt the movement had been gathering momentum and could have toppled the British.
• Younger nationalists turned to revolutionary methods — leading to the formation of the HRA in 1924.
• The Hindu-Muslim alliance began to fray almost immediately. The Khilafat issue itself collapsed in March 1924 when Atatürk abolished the Caliphate.

Gandhi's Trial — "The Great Trial" (March 1922)

Gandhi was arrested on 10 March 1922. His trial at Ahmedabad on 18 March 1922 — known as the "Great Trial" — was conducted by Justice C.N. Broomfield. Gandhi pleaded guilty to charges of sedition (3 articles in Young India). Justice Broomfield sentenced him to 6 years' imprisonment at Yerwada Jail, observing that he was "in a different category from any person I have ever tried" and expressing personal regret. Gandhi was released early in February 1924 due to appendicitis (operation 12 January 1924); he had served less than 2 years.

§9 — Swarajists vs No-Changers

Swarajists vs No-Changers (1922–1928)

After the withdrawal, the Congress split into two camps over strategy:

Swarajists (Pro-Council Entry)

The Swaraj Party was formed on 1 January 1923 by C.R. Das (President) and Motilal Nehru (Secretary). They argued the Congress should contest legislative council elections and obstruct the government from within. Other prominent Swarajists: Vithalbhai Patel, Madan Mohan Malaviya, M.A. Ansari, Hakim Ajmal Khan, N.C. Kelkar.

No-Changers

The opposing faction — including Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad, C. Rajagopalachari, M.A. Ansari (later Swarajist) — argued for sticking to Gandhi's constructive programme — khadi, temperance, education, untouchability work. Gandhi himself, after release, supported this position quietly.

Swarajist Election Performance (1923)

In the November 1923 elections to the Central Legislative Assembly:

• Swaraj Party won 42 of 145 seats in the Central Assembly — the largest single party.
• In Bengal — formed government coalition.
• In Central Provinces — formed government coalition.
• In Bombay, Madras, UP — became principal opposition.

Achievements

• Defeated several government bills (e.g., Public Safety Bill 1928).
• Carried critical resolutions in the Assembly (though they had no executive effect).
• Vithalbhai Patel was elected President (Speaker) of the Central Legislative Assembly in 1925.

Decline

The Swaraj Party declined after C.R. Das's death (16 June 1925). By 1926–28, internal splits, communal pressures (Muslim League-Hindu Mahasabha), and Gandhi's gradual return to active leadership marginalised the Swarajists. The party reunited with the main Congress at the Calcutta Session 1928.

§10 — Frequently Asked Questions

Frequently Asked Questions