Round Table Conferences & Communal Award

§1 — Background

Background: From Simon to RTCs

The all-British Simon Commission (1928) had been comprehensively boycotted by Indians. To save face and demonstrate Indian agreement, the British Government decided to hold a Round Table Conference in London bringing together representatives of British India and the Princely States to discuss the future constitution.

Irwin Declaration (31 October 1929)

Viceroy Lord Irwin announced on 31 October 1929: "the natural issue of India's constitutional progress... is the attainment of Dominion Status," and proposed a Round Table Conference. Indian leaders met in Delhi (Delhi Manifesto, 2 November 1929) demanding that the RTC frame a Dominion constitution and amnesty be granted to political prisoners. Irwin equivocated. The Lahore Congress (December 1929) declared Purna Swaraj as the goal and authorised civil disobedience.

§2 — First Round Table Conference

First Round Table Conference (12 November 1930 – 19 January 1931)

The First RTC was held at St. James's Palace, London, from 12 November 1930 to 19 January 1931. It was inaugurated by King George V and presided by Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (Labour PM heading National Government).

Indian Delegates (89 in total)

Congress was absent — Civil Disobedience was raging, all major Congress leaders were in jail. The 89 delegates (16 from princely states, 57 from British India, 16 from Britain) included:

• Princes: Maharaja of Bikaner (Ganga Singh), Maharaja of Patiala (Bhupinder Singh), Akbar Hydari (Hyderabad), Mirza Ismail (Mysore), Begum of Bhopal, Nizam's representative.
• Muslim League: Aga Khan III (delegation leader), M.A. Jinnah, Sir Muhammad Shafi, Maulana Mohammed Ali Jauhar.
• Hindu Mahasabha: M.R. Jayakar, B.S. Moonje.
• Liberals: Tej Bahadur Sapru, V.S. Srinivasa Sastri, C.Y. Chintamani.
• Sikhs: Sardar Sampuran Singh, Ujjal Singh.
• Depressed Classes: Dr B.R. Ambedkar (his first appearance on the international political stage), Rao Bahadur R. Srinivasan.
• Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans, Women, Trade Unions: various.

Key Outcomes

• Princes accepted the idea of an All-India Federation — uniting British India and Princely States.
• Provincial autonomy and federal structure broadly endorsed.
• Communal representation remained the deep impasse.
• The Conference closed inconclusively. Maulana Mohammed Ali Jauhar died in London on 4 January 1931 — buried in Jerusalem.
• British realised no constitution was possible without the Indian National Congress. This led directly to the Gandhi-Irwin negotiations.

§3 — Second Round Table Conference

Second Round Table Conference (7 September – 1 December 1931)

After the Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931), Gandhi sailed for London on 29 August 1931 aboard SS Rajputana, arriving on 12 September. He stayed at Kingsley Hall in the East End of London with Muriel Lester (a slum settlement worker) — refusing the official accommodation. He was given a famous reception by ordinary Britons, particularly textile workers in Lancashire, despite the Boycott of British cloth.

The Conference (7 September – 1 December 1931)

Gandhi attended as the sole Congress representative. Other Indian delegates were largely the same as the First RTC. Sarojini Naidu attended as a Congress co-representative.

The session began on 14 September; Gandhi's first speech was at the Federal Structure Sub-Committee on 15 September. Gandhi argued the Congress represented all Indians — a claim explicitly rejected by:

• Jinnah (Muslim League): Muslims need separate electorates and weightage.
• Ambedkar: Depressed Classes are a separate political constituency, not part of the Hindu fold; demand separate electorates.
• Princes: They negotiate directly with the Crown.
• Hindu Mahasabha and Sikhs raised their own demands.

Failure

The communal deadlock could not be resolved. On 1 December 1931, MacDonald announced he would impose a Communal Award if Indian leaders could not agree. The Conference closed.

Gandhi visited France, Switzerland, Italy (met Mussolini and the Pope), and Egypt on his way back. He returned to Bombay on 28 December 1931.

Reception in India

By the time Gandhi returned, the political climate had hardened — Lord Willingdon had succeeded Irwin as Viceroy and launched a fresh crackdown. UP Congress was banned, Bengal repression intensified, Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and his Khudai Khidmatgars were arrested. Gandhi sought a meeting with Willingdon; refused. On 4 January 1932, Gandhi was arrested under the 1818 Bengal Regulation. The Civil Disobedience Movement resumed.

§4 — Communal Award (16 August 1932)

The Communal Award (16 August 1932)

British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced his Communal Award on 16 August 1932, fulfilling his threat at the end of the 2nd RTC. The Award provided:

Provisions

• Separate electorates retained for: Muslims, Sikhs, Indian Christians, Anglo-Indians, Europeans.
• NEW: Separate electorates for the Depressed Classes (Untouchables) — about 71 reserved seats in provincial legislatures.
• Reservation of seats for women.
• Special seats for trade unions, landholders, commerce, universities.
• In Punjab and Bengal — Muslim majorities — they were given fewer than population-proportional seats (unchanged from the Lucknow Pact compromise).
• In Sind — formed a separate province with Muslim majority.

Indian Reactions

Reactions were mixed:

• Muslim League: Pleased — separate electorates retained; Sind separation; weightage in minority provinces.
• Hindu Mahasabha: Bitter — Muslim majorities entrenched in Punjab and Bengal; depressed classes seen as fragmenting Hinduism.
• Sikhs: Disappointed — felt Punjab Sikh share was inadequate.
• Ambedkar: Initially supportive — separate Dalit electorates would give the Depressed Classes their own representatives free of caste-Hindu influence.
• Gandhi: Vehemently opposed separate electorates for Depressed Classes — argued it would split Hinduism permanently.

Gandhi's Fast (20 September 1932)

From Yerwada Jail (where he had been held since January 1932), on 20 September 1932, Gandhi began a "fast unto death" against the separate electorates for Depressed Classes provision. He wrote to Ramsay MacDonald: "I have to resist your decision with my life. The only way I can do is by declaring a perpetual fast unto death from food of any kind save water with or without salt and soda."

§5 — Poona Pact (24 September 1932)

The Poona Pact (24 September 1932)

Gandhi's fast brought intense national pressure. Caste Hindu leaders sought urgent compromise with Ambedkar — who held the political leverage. Negotiators included:

• Madan Mohan Malaviya (lead negotiator from Hindu side).
• M.C. Rajah (a moderate Depressed Classes leader).
• Tej Bahadur Sapru, C. Rajagopalachari, G.D. Birla, Pandit Hridyanath Kunzru.
• Dr B.R. Ambedkar — representing the Depressed Classes.

Pressure on Ambedkar

Ambedkar was placed in an excruciating position. He believed separate electorates were essential to give Untouchables a real political voice. But Gandhi was widely beloved; Gandhi's death from the fast would have caused a Hindu backlash potentially catastrophic for the Depressed Classes (mass violence in some areas had already begun against Dalit residents of caste-Hindu villages).

After 5 days of agonising negotiation, on 24 September 1932 at Yerwada Central Jail, Pune, the Poona Pact was signed.

Terms of the Poona Pact

• Separate electorates for Depressed Classes dropped.
• Joint electorates retained — but with reserved seats for Depressed Classes.
• 148 reserved seats in provincial legislatures (vs. 71 in MacDonald Award) — more than doubled.
• Reservation in central legislature: 18% of general electorate seats.
• Adequate representation in services and education.
• Equal opportunity in public services.
• A "primary election" mechanism: in each reserved constituency, the Depressed Classes electorate would first nominate 4 candidates, from whom the joint electorate would elect one — preventing caste Hindus from imposing puppet Dalit candidates. (Later abandoned.)

Gandhi broke his fast on 26 September 1932 with orange juice given by Kasturba.

Long-term Significance

The Poona Pact's principle — joint electorates with reserved seats — became the model for the Indian Constitution's reservation of seats for SC/ST under Articles 330 (Lok Sabha) and 332 (state legislatures). The Pact's spirit informs all Indian affirmative action.

Ambedkar himself remained ambivalent — in "What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchables" (1945), he wrote that the Pact had been forced on him under emotional duress. But at the time and in the long run, the joint-electorates-with-reservation model proved durable.

Harijan Movement

Gandhi's broader response to the Communal Award episode was the Harijan movement. He renamed the Depressed Classes "Harijans" ("children of God"); founded the All India Anti-Untouchability League (later Harijan Sevak Sangh) on 30 September 1932; began the weekly journal Harijan (11 February 1933, replacing Young India and Navajivan); undertook the Harijan Yatra (Tour) of 1933 — over 12,500 km across India for temple entry, anti-untouchability awareness, and constructive work.

Note: Ambedkar disliked the term "Harijan" (regarded it as patronising) and rejected Gandhi's approach as caste-Hindu paternalism.

§6 — Third Round Table Conference

Third Round Table Conference (17 November – 24 December 1932)

The Third RTC was held in London from 17 November to 24 December 1932. It was the briefest and least significant.

• Congress was absent (CDM resumed; Gandhi in Yerwada).
• Only 46 delegates (smaller than earlier RTCs) attended.
• The Labour Party (now in opposition) boycotted in protest at British policy in India.
• The Conference simply confirmed and elaborated proposals already developed.

White Paper and Joint Select Committee

Following the 3rd RTC, the British Government issued the White Paper on Indian Constitutional Reforms in March 1933. A Joint Select Committee of Parliament — chaired by Lord Linlithgow (the future Viceroy) with members like Sir Samuel Hoare (Secretary of State for India), Tej Bahadur Sapru, Aga Khan III, B.R. Ambedkar, Jinnah — examined the White Paper for over a year. The Committee's recommendations became the basis for the Government of India Act 1935.

§7 — Government of India Act 1935

Government of India Act 1935

Passed on 2 August 1935 after a year-long passage through Parliament, the Government of India Act 1935 was the longest Act ever passed by the British Parliament — 321 sections, 10 schedules, 14 Parts. Its main features:

Key Features

• All-India Federation — proposed federation of British India provinces and Princely States. Princely accession was voluntary; never enough Princes acceded; the Federation never came into force. (Thus the Act's federal provisions remained on paper.)
• Provincial Autonomy — abolished diarchy at provinces; full ministerial responsibility to legislature on all subjects (Reserved/Transferred distinction abolished).
• Diarchy at the Centre — Federal subjects divided into Reserved (Defence, Foreign Affairs, Religion, Tribal Areas — Governor-General's exclusive control) and Transferred (with ministers).
• Bicameral provincial legislatures in 6 provinces (Bombay, Madras, Bengal, UP, Bihar, Assam); unicameral in others.
• Three lists — Federal, Provincial, Concurrent (the model retained in the Indian Constitution's 7th Schedule).
• Federal Court of India — established 1 October 1937 at Delhi (precursor to Supreme Court).
• Reserve Bank of India — established 1 April 1935 under the RBI Act 1934 (parallel to GoI Act).
• Federal Public Service Commission and Provincial Public Service Commissions.
• Communal electorates expanded as per 1932 Communal Award (with Poona Pact for Depressed Classes).
• Burma separated from India by separate Government of Burma Act 1935 (effective 1 April 1937).
• Sind, Orissa — separated as new provinces (Sind from Bombay; Orissa from Bihar); Aden separated.
• Dyarchy at Centre never implemented (because Federation didn't come into force) — the old 1919 Act's central diarchy continued until 1947.

Indian Reaction

Indian leaders denounced the Act:

• Jawaharlal Nehru: "A new charter of slavery"; "a machine with strong brakes but no engine".
• Madan Mohan Malaviya: "Dominion Status without Dominion Status."
• Congress denounced the Act in its entirety, but resolved to contest the elections to capture and obstruct from within.
• Muslim League had reservations but accepted the Act provisionally.

Influence on Indian Constitution

Despite its rejection, the GoI Act 1935 was the "primary source" of the Indian Constitution. Provisions retained/adapted include:

• Federal structure with three lists.
• Office of Governor in states.
• Public Service Commission.
• Federal Court → Supreme Court.
• Emergency provisions.
• Many administrative provisions.

Granville Austin estimated about 250 articles of the Indian Constitution are derived directly or indirectly from the GoI Act 1935.

§8 — 1937 Provincial Elections & Congress Ministries

1937 Provincial Elections & Congress Ministries

The first elections under the GoI Act 1935 were held in February 1937. Voting was on a property/education franchise — about 30 million voters (about 10% of population) — much expanded from the 1919 Act's 5 million but still limited.

Election Results

The Congress contested vigorously despite condemning the Act:

• Congress won majorities in 5 of 11 provinces directly: Madras, UP, CP, Bihar, Orissa.
• Single-largest party in 3 more: Bombay, NWFP, Assam (formed coalition or minority governments after some delay).
• Congress thus formed ministries in 8 provinces.
• Punjab — Unionist Party (Sikander Hyat Khan, agrarian cross-communal).
• Bengal — Krishak Praja Party (Fazlul Huq) coalition with Muslim League.
• Sind — minority Muslim coalition.

Muslim League's Crisis

The Muslim League performed poorly — winning only 109 of 482 reserved Muslim seats (about 23%). Crucially, it was rejected in the Muslim-majority provinces (Punjab, Bengal, Sind, NWFP) — its theoretical "core constituencies." Jinnah used the disappointment to reorganise the League aggressively, leading eventually to the Lahore Resolution (1940) and the demand for Pakistan.

Congress Ministries (1937–39)

Congress ministries took office in July 1937. Key Premiers (CMs):

• Madras — C. Rajagopalachari
• Bombay — B.G. Kher
• UP — Govind Ballabh Pant
• Bihar — Sri Krishna Sinha
• CP — N.B. Khare
• Orissa — Biswanath Das
• NWFP — Dr Khan Sahib
• Assam — Gopinath Bardoloi (after September 1938)

Achievements (1937–39)

• Civil liberties expanded — political prisoners released; press laws relaxed.
• Tenancy reforms in Bihar, UP, Orissa (modest).
• Education expanded; basic education (Wardha Scheme) introduced in Congress provinces.
• Prohibition pursued in some provinces (against demanded by Gandhi).
• Industrial labour legislation.
• Some moves to reduce land revenue and abolish zamindari were attempted but limited.

Resignation (October–November 1939)

In September 1939, Viceroy Lord Linlithgow declared India a belligerent in WWII without consulting Indian leaders. The Congress Working Committee asked the Viceroy to clarify the war aims (whether Indian independence was the post-war goal). When no satisfactory answer came, the Congress instructed all its provincial ministries to resign. Resignation occurred between 22 October and 15 November 1939. The Muslim League under Jinnah celebrated the resignation as "Day of Deliverance" on 22 December 1939.

§9 — Frequently Asked Questions

Frequently Asked Questions