Partition & Independence (1947)

§1 — Timeline

Timeline of Key Events

§2 — Cabinet Mission Plan (May 1946)

The Cabinet Mission Plan (May 1946)

Britain's Labour Government under Clement Attlee announced on 19 February 1946 that a Cabinet Mission would be sent to India to negotiate independence terms. The mission arrived on 24 March 1946.

The Mission Members

• Lord Pethick-Lawrence — Secretary of State for India; mission leader.
• Sir Stafford Cripps — President of the Board of Trade; veteran of the 1942 Cripps Mission.
• A.V. Alexander — First Lord of the Admiralty.

For two months the Mission shuttled between Congress (Maulana Azad as INC President; Nehru, Patel, Gandhi as observers), Muslim League (Jinnah, Liaquat Ali), princes, Sikhs, and other minorities. The Mission decisively rejected partition as impractical (it would split armies, communications, and economically integrated regions).

Cabinet Mission Plan (16 May 1946)

The Plan proposed a three-tier federal structure:

Provisions:

• A Constituent Assembly to draft a constitution; elected by provincial legislatures.
• Princely States to negotiate accession.
• Each province could opt out of its group after 10 years and after the constitution came into force.
• Interim Government to be formed.

Initial Acceptance, Then Disagreement

Both Congress and the Muslim League accepted the Plan in June 1946 — the League first (6 June), then Congress (24 June after several reservations).

However, fundamental disagreement existed on the "grouping" provision:

• Muslim League read it as: provinces MUST initially go into their assigned group; can opt out only after 10 years and a vote of the new constitution. This effectively gave the League control of Pakistan-leaning groups B and C.
• Congress (especially Nehru) read it as: provinces would CHOOSE whether to join their group or remain at the Union centre directly. This essentially nullified the Pakistan compromise.

Nehru's Press Conference (10 July 1946)

Nehru's notorious press conference at Bombay (10 July 1946) categorically rejected mandatory grouping. He said the Constituent Assembly was free to interpret the Plan as it wished. This provoked Jinnah; he saw it as bad faith.

Muslim League Withdrawal (29 July 1946)

On 29 July 1946 at Bombay, the Muslim League withdrew its acceptance of the Cabinet Mission Plan and called for "Direct Action" to achieve Pakistan. The Plan was effectively dead.

§3 — Interim Government (September 1946)

Interim Government (2 September 1946)

The Interim Government of India — provisional executive prior to full independence — was sworn in on 2 September 1946 by Viceroy Wavell.

Initial Composition (Congress only)

The League initially refused to join. The Congress government:

• Jawaharlal Nehru — Vice President of the Council (effectively PM); External Affairs & Commonwealth Relations.
• Vallabhbhai Patel — Home, Information & Broadcasting.
• Baldev Singh — Defence (Sikh).
• John Mathai — Industries & Supplies.
• C. Rajagopalachari — Education.
• Asaf Ali — Railways & Transport.
• C.H. Bhabha — Works, Mines, Power (Parsi).
• Rajendra Prasad — Food & Agriculture.
• Jagjivan Ram — Labour (Dalit).
• Sarat Chandra Bose — Defence Coordination, briefly (resigned).

League Joins (26 October 1946)

Under pressure from Wavell, the Muslim League joined on 26 October 1946. Liaquat Ali Khan became Finance Member — a strategically chosen portfolio that allowed him to obstruct Nehru and Patel through budget refusals. Other League members: I.I. Chundrigar, Abdur Rab Nishtar, Ghazanfar Ali Khan, Joginder Nath Mandal (a Dalit, deliberately recruited by Jinnah).

The League members did NOT recognise Nehru's leadership; coordination was minimal. Liaquat Ali used the Finance portfolio to introduce a budget targeting Hindu business — confirming Patel's view that working with the League was impossible.

§4 — Direct Action Day & Calcutta Killings (16 August 1946)

Direct Action Day & Calcutta Killings (16 August 1946)

After the Muslim League's withdrawal from the Cabinet Mission Plan, Jinnah called for "Direct Action Day" on 16 August 1946 to achieve Pakistan. The League's Working Committee resolution: "Now the time has come for the Muslim Nation to resort to Direct Action to achieve Pakistan, to assert their just rights, to vindicate their honour, and to get rid of the present British slavery and the contemplated future caste-Hindu domination."

Calcutta Killings (16-19 August 1946)

The "Direct Action" turned into the worst urban communal violence in Indian history. In Calcutta, the Muslim League's Bengal government under Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy (Premier) declared 16 August a public holiday. Initial Muslim League rallies at Octerlony Monument turned into mob attacks on Hindu neighbourhoods. Hindu retaliation followed within hours.

Over 72 hours (16-19 August):

• 5,000-10,000 killed (estimates vary).
• About 15,000 wounded.
• Tens of thousands of homes burned.
• Massive displacement.

The violence spread to Noakhali (Bengal, October 1946), Bihar (October-November 1946 — about 7,000 Muslims killed by Hindu mobs), Garhmukteshwar (UP), Punjab. By early 1947, communal violence was endemic.

Gandhi's Response

Gandhi spent October–November 1946 walking through Noakhali (East Bengal) — a four-month "pilgrimage" of peace through Muslim-majority villages where Hindus had been killed and converted. He stayed in 47 villages over four months. He went barefoot for much of the time, meeting victims and perpetrators. The "Noakhali pilgrimage" remains an iconic act of moral courage.

§5 — Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947)

The Mountbatten Plan / 3 June Plan

Mountbatten Becomes Viceroy (March 1947)

On 20 February 1947, PM Attlee announced in Parliament that British rule in India would end by June 1948 — an unprecedented commitment to a deadline. He named Lord Louis Mountbatten (great-grandson of Queen Victoria, last Viceroy of India) as successor to Wavell. Mountbatten arrived 22 March 1947 with a brief to expedite transfer of power.

The Path to Partition

Mountbatten's first weeks saw extensive consultations:

• Gandhi insisted on India remaining united; even proposed Jinnah become PM of an undivided India (rejected by Congress).
• Patel (Congress) and Nehru reluctantly accepted partition as the price of peace.
• Jinnah demanded Pakistan; rejected smaller "moth-eaten Pakistan" but eventually accepted it.
• Sikhs (Master Tara Singh) opposed partition that would split Punjab.

The Plan (3 June 1947)

Mountbatten announced the Mountbatten Plan (also called the "3 June Plan") on 3 June 1947:

• Partition of British India into two dominions: India and Pakistan.
• Two Constituent Assemblies — one for each dominion.
• The Bengal and Punjab legislatures would meet in two parts (Hindu/Muslim) and vote on partition; if either part voted for partition, the province would be partitioned.
• Sindh would decide via its own legislature.
• NWFP and Sylhet (Assam) would have referendums.
• Boundary Commissions for Punjab and Bengal under Sir Cyril Radcliffe.
• Princely states free to accede to India, Pakistan, or remain independent.
• Both dominions would have Dominion Status initially.

Acceleration

Crucially, Mountbatten brought the deadline forward from June 1948 to 15 August 1947 — a mere 72 days from the announcement of the Plan. This decision (without consultation with the British Cabinet) was driven by Mountbatten's view that delay would worsen communal violence. In retrospect, the haste contributed to administrative chaos and the Radcliffe Line's flaws.

Political Acceptance

• Congress accepted Plan at All-India Congress Committee (AICC) on 14 June 1947 by 157-29 vote.
• Muslim League accepted on 9 June 1947 (Council of the League).
• Akali Dal (Master Tara Singh) reluctantly accepted.

Provincial Voting

• Punjab: Hindu-Sikh part voted for partition; Muslim part voted against partition (i.e., to keep Punjab in Pakistan).
• Bengal: Hindu part voted for partition; Muslim part voted against.
• Sindh: Voted to join Pakistan.
• NWFP: Referendum (July 1947) voted for Pakistan; Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan and Khudai Khidmatgars boycotted.
• Sylhet: Referendum voted to join East Bengal (Pakistan).

§6 — Indian Independence Act 1947

The Indian Independence Act 1947

The Indian Independence Act 1947 was passed by the British Parliament on 18 July 1947, implementing the Mountbatten Plan. Key provisions:

• Two Independent Dominions of India and Pakistan from 15 August 1947.
• Each dominion to have a Governor-General appointed by the British Crown.
• Both dominions to have plenary legislative authority — full sovereign legislatures (Constituent Assemblies).
• The Government of India Act 1935 to remain in force as the working constitution until each Constituent Assembly framed its own.
• British paramountcy over princely states lapses on 15 August 1947 — princes free to accede to either dominion.
• British Crown's title "Emperor of India" abolished from 22 June 1948.
• Office of Secretary of State for India abolished; replaced by Commonwealth Relations Office.

Indian Constituent Assembly

The Constituent Assembly of India (elected July 1946; opened 9 December 1946) was now both a legislature and constitution-making body. Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected its permanent President on 11 December 1946. The Drafting Committee under Dr B.R. Ambedkar was formed in 29 August 1947. The Constitution was adopted 26 November 1949 and came into force 26 January 1950.

§7 — Radcliffe Line

The Radcliffe Line (August 1947)

Sir Cyril Radcliffe (1899–1977) — an English barrister with no prior India experience — was appointed Chairman of both the Punjab and Bengal Boundary Commissions on 30 June 1947. He arrived in India on 8 July 1947 with just 5 weeks to draw the borders.

The Commissions

Each Commission had 4 members — 2 nominated by Congress, 2 by Muslim League. Radcliffe acted as casting chair. The Indian members were unable to agree on virtually any contested area, so Radcliffe alone made the decisions.

Process

Radcliffe used outdated maps (1941 census), unreliable population data, and made decisions about regions he had never seen. He did not visit Punjab or Bengal himself. His staff included Indian civil servants but he kept his decisions secret.

The Award

Radcliffe completed his work on 12-13 August 1947. Mountbatten requested him to keep the award secret until 17 August 1947 — i.e., AFTER independence celebrations on 14-15 August. The award was published only on 17 August 1947, by which time millions had already begun migrating along the assumed lines.

The Line

The Radcliffe Line:

• Total length about 3,323 km.
• Punjab boundary cut through 12 districts; Bengal boundary cut through 13 districts.
• Disputed sections — Calcutta to India, Lahore to Pakistan; Gurdaspur and Ferozepur districts to India (controversial — particularly Gurdaspur, which was crucial for Kashmir's later land access to India).
• The line cut through villages, fields, irrigation canals, family lands, religious sites.

Consequences

The Radcliffe Line precipitated history's largest peacetime migration:

• 10-15 million people displaced (Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan; Muslims from India).
• 1-2 million killed in communal violence (estimates vary; often cited as ~1 million).
• Tens of thousands of women raped; abducted children; "trains of corpses" arrived at Lahore, Amritsar, Delhi.
• Refugee camps in Delhi (Purana Qila, Kingsway Camp), Bombay, Calcutta.
• Punjab and Bengal saw the worst violence; Sindh and East Bengal experienced extensive Hindu departures.

Radcliffe destroyed his maps and notes before leaving India and refused his £40,000 payment. He never returned to India. He later said his greatest regret was the Punjab boundary.

§8 — Integration of Princely States

Integration of Princely States

British paramountcy over the 565 princely states lapsed on 15 August 1947. Theoretically, each was free to accede to India, Pakistan, or remain independent. The integration of these states into the Indian Union was the achievement of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel (Home Minister) and his secretary V.P. Menon.

Method

• States Department set up 5 July 1947 with Patel as Minister, V.P. Menon as Secretary.
• Instrument of Accession — princes ceded only Defence, External Affairs, and Communications to the Union; retained internal autonomy initially.
• Privy Purses — princes received generous pensions.
• By 15 August 1947, most states had acceded (over 550).

Difficult States

Junagadh

Junagadh (a small Saurashtra state with Hindu majority and a Muslim Nawab) acceded to Pakistan on 15 September 1947 against majority sentiment. India deployed troops and called a plebiscite; the Nawab fled to Karachi. The plebiscite of 20 February 1948 overwhelmingly favoured India.

Hyderabad

Hyderabad's Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan refused to accede to either India or Pakistan, hoping for independence. The Nizam's Razakar militia (under Qasim Razvi) terrorised Hindu villages. Operation Polo (13-18 September 1948) — five days of military action — forced accession. Major General J.N. Chaudhuri commanded.

Kashmir

Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu and Kashmir vacillated between India and independence. On 22 October 1947, Pakistani-backed tribal raiders (Pashtun lashkar) invaded Kashmir. The Maharaja signed the Instrument of Accession to India on 26 October 1947; Indian forces airlifted to Srinagar on 27 October. The First Indo-Pakistani War of 1947-48 ensued. UN-brokered ceasefire on 1 January 1949 left Kashmir divided along the Line of Control. Article 370 (special provisions for J&K) was incorporated in the Constitution; abrogated on 5 August 2019.

Integration into the Union (1948–49)

Patel and Menon negotiated the "merger" of states — moving from "Instrument of Accession" (which preserved internal autonomy) to full integration. By 1 November 1956 (States Reorganisation), virtually all princely states had been absorbed into linguistic states.

§9 — 14-15 August 1947

14-15 August 1947 — Independence

Karachi (14 August 1947)

On 14 August 1947, Mountbatten flew to Karachi. He inaugurated the Pakistan Constituent Assembly's session that morning. Mohammad Ali Jinnah took oath as Pakistan's Governor-General; Liaquat Ali Khan as Prime Minister. Pakistan was formally born at midnight.

Delhi (15 August 1947)

On the night of 14-15 August 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru delivered the famous "Tryst with Destiny" speech in the Constituent Assembly. Excerpts:

"Long years ago, we made a tryst with destiny, and now the time comes when we shall redeem our pledge... At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life and freedom."

At midnight, the Indian flag was hoisted at Parliament. Lord Mountbatten was sworn in as the first Governor-General of independent India. Jawaharlal Nehru took oath as the first Prime Minister of independent India. The Cabinet was sworn in shortly thereafter.

Gandhi's Absence

Conspicuously, Mahatma Gandhi was NOT at Delhi on 15 August. He was at Calcutta, fasting at Beliaghata (Hyderi Manzil) to stop communal violence. He was working with Suhrawardy (the very Muslim League Premier whose government had presided over the 1946 Calcutta Killings). His Calcutta fast — known as the "Miracle of Calcutta" — actually succeeded in stopping the violence.

The First Cabinet

The first Cabinet of independent India:

• Jawaharlal Nehru — Prime Minister, External Affairs, Commonwealth Relations.
• Vallabhbhai Patel — Home, Information & Broadcasting, States.
• Maulana Abul Kalam Azad — Education.
• Rajendra Prasad — Food & Agriculture (later first President of India).
• Dr B.R. Ambedkar — Law & Justice (Drafting Committee Chairman of Constitution).
• Dr Syama Prasad Mookerjee — Industries & Supplies (Hindu Mahasabha).
• John Mathai — Railways & Transport.
• R.K. Shanmukham Chetty — Finance.
• Baldev Singh — Defence.
• Jagjivan Ram — Labour.
• C.H. Bhabha — Commerce.
• Rajkumari Amrit Kaur — Health (first woman cabinet minister).
• Others.

Gandhi's Assassination (30 January 1948)

On 30 January 1948, at 5:17 pm, Mahatma Gandhi was shot dead at Birla House, New Delhi, while walking to evening prayer. The assassin: Nathuram Godse, a Hindu Mahasabha extremist who blamed Gandhi for being too pro-Muslim. Godse was tried and hanged (with Narayan Apte) on 15 November 1949 at Ambala. Gandhi's last words: "Hey Ram". He was 78. Nehru's broadcast: "The light has gone out of our lives, and there is darkness everywhere."

§10 — Frequently Asked Questions

Frequently Asked Questions