Integration of Princely States & States Reorganisation

§1 — Timeline

Timeline of Key Events

§2 — Princely States Background

Princely States Background

At Independence in 1947, India had 565 princely states (some sources cite 562). They ranged enormously:

• Largest: Hyderabad (~82,000 sq miles, 16 million population, 2.5 crore revenue), Jammu & Kashmir, Mysore, Travancore, Bhopal, Baroda, Indore, Gwalior.
• Medium: Patiala, Bikaner, Jaipur, Jodhpur, Cochin, Bharatpur.
• Tiny: many states with just a few villages.
• Total area: about 40% of pre-Partition India.
• Total population: about 23%.

British paramountcy over them was governed by the doctrine of Lord Canning's adoption sanad (1862) and successive treaties.

Indian Independence Act 1947 — Lapse of Paramountcy

The Indian Independence Act 1947 Section 7(1)(b) provided that "the suzerainty of His Majesty over the Indian States lapses, and with it, all treaties and agreements in force". Princes had three theoretical options:

1. Accede to India.
2. Accede to Pakistan.
3. Remain independent.

Mountbatten and Patel together urged princes to accede to India before independence. The princes had no realistic option for independence — they were geographically surrounded by India in most cases.

§3 — Patel and V.P. Menon

Sardar Patel and V.P. Menon: The Architects

States Department (5 July 1947)

The States Department (also called States Ministry) was established on 5 July 1947 with:

• Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel — Minister.
• V.P. Menon — Secretary.

V.P. Menon (1893-1965)

Vapal Pangunni Menon was an extraordinary civil servant — born in Kerala to a poor family, joined the Reforms Department of the Government of India, rose to become Reforms Commissioner under Wavell. He had drafted the Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947) and was Mountbatten's most trusted Indian advisor. After 15 August 1947, he served Patel as Secretary of the States Ministry.

Menon's diplomatic skill and personal relationships with princes were crucial. He authored two indispensable books: "The Story of the Integration of the Indian States" (1956) and "Transfer of Power in India" (1957).

Sardar Patel (1875-1950)

"Sardar" Patel — Home Minister, Deputy PM, States Minister — combined diplomatic finesse with military firmness. Princes recognised that Patel could not be defied. His personal relationships with leading princes (built over years of Congress engagement) helped enormously.

Statue of Unity (Kevadia, Gujarat — 182 m) was inaugurated in 2018 in his honour — world's tallest statue.

§4 — Instrument of Accession

Instrument of Accession (IoA)

The standard Instrument of Accession drafted by V.P. Menon and Mountbatten for Indian princely states was carefully crafted:

What the Princes Ceded

Princes ceded only three subjects to the Indian Union:

1. Defence.
2. External Affairs.
3. Communications.

What the Princes Retained

• Internal autonomy in all other matters.
• Royal titles, dignity, ceremonial position.
• Privy Purses — generous tax-free pensions (the "doctrine of paramountcy" replaced by treaty).
• Dynastic succession rights.

Standstill Agreement

Alongside the Instrument of Accession, princes signed a Standstill Agreement with the Government of India — preserving existing administrative arrangements (postal, customs, railway, telegraph) until further negotiation.

Process

By 15 August 1947, of 565 states:

• About 555 had acceded to India via Instruments of Accession.
• 3 problem states: Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir.
• Bhopal initially resisted but acceded by 30 April 1949.

Subsequent Integration (1948-49)

Patel and Menon then negotiated the "merger" of states — moving from "Instrument of Accession" (which preserved internal autonomy) to full administrative integration:

• Smaller states grouped into "Unions" (Saurashtra, Madhya Bharat, Vindhya Pradesh, PEPSU, Rajasthan, Travancore-Cochin).
• Larger states integrated as Part B states.
• By 1949, princely autonomy effectively ended.

Privy Purses

As compensation, princes received Privy Purses — annual pensions, originally Rs 1.5 to 26 lakh per year, varying by size and dignity of state. They were also exempted from income tax, kept their palaces and personal property, and retained ceremonial titles.

The Privy Purses were abolished by the 26th Constitutional Amendment 1971 by Indira Gandhi's government — after the Supreme Court initially struck down a Presidential Order in 1970.

§5 — Junagadh

Junagadh — Plebiscite (February 1948)

Junagadh was a small Saurashtra state with a Muslim Nawab (Mahabat Khanji III) ruling a 80% Hindu population. On 15 September 1947, the Nawab's Diwan Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto (father of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, future PM of Pakistan) announced accession to Pakistan despite geography (Junagadh was surrounded by Indian territory).

Indian Response

• India deployed troops to surrounding territories of Saurashtra.
• Civil disobedience by the local population (which favoured India) led to chaos.
• The Nawab fled to Pakistan in late October 1947 with his family.
• The Diwan invited Indian intervention; on 9 November 1947 Indian forces entered Junagadh.
• A plebiscite was held on 20 February 1948 — the only such plebiscite ever conducted on Indian princely accession.
• Result: 1,90,870 of 2,01,457 voters chose India (95%); only 91 voted for Pakistan.

Junagadh formally became part of India.

§6 — Hyderabad / Operation Polo

Hyderabad — Operation Polo (September 1948)

The largest princely state. The Nizam Mir Osman Ali Khan refused to accede to either India or Pakistan, hoping for independence. Some details (full coverage in Hyderabad & the Nizams article).

Tensions

• Nizam signed Standstill Agreement (November 1947) — but refused accession.
• The Razakar militia of Qasim Razvi (Majlis-e-Ittehadul Muslimeen) terrorised Hindus and Communists.
• Telangana Communist Armed Struggle (1946-51) was already in progress, complicating the picture.
• Mass refugee flows into India.
• The Nizam appealed to the UN.

Operation Polo (13-18 September 1948)

Sardar Patel directed the operation. Major General J.N. Chaudhuri commanded. Indian forces entered Hyderabad from five directions on 13 September 1948. Within 5 days, the operation was complete:

• Battle at Naldurg gate; brief skirmishes at Daulatabad, Zaheerabad.
• Razakar militia collapsed.
• Nizam announced surrender on All India Radio on 17 September 1948.
• Indian Army entered Hyderabad city on 18 September 1948.
• Casualties: ~800 Razakars and ~50 Indian soldiers killed.

Aftermath

• Nizam acceded to India; made Rajpramukh of Hyderabad State (1948-1956).
• Communal violence continued for months — Sundarlal Committee (kept secret until 2013) estimated 27,000-40,000 Muslims killed in reprisals.
• Qasim Razvi tried and imprisoned; allowed to migrate to Pakistan in 1957.
• Hyderabad State existed 1948-56; split by States Reorganisation 1956 between Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.

§7 — Jammu & Kashmir

Jammu & Kashmir — Accession 26 October 1947

Background

Maharaja Hari Singh of J&K (Dogra Hindu ruling a Muslim-majority state) vacillated about accession. He had political preference for independence. He signed only a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan (not India) in August 1947 — but India did not accept. Internal pressures: Sheikh Abdullah's National Conference (Kashmiri nationalist, pro-India), Choudhary Ghulam Abbas's Muslim Conference (pro-Pakistan).

Pakistan Tribal Invasion (22 October 1947)

On 22 October 1947, Pakistan-backed Pashtun tribal lashkars from the NWFP entered Kashmir. They quickly captured Muzaffarabad and Baramulla, raping and looting. Tribesmen reached within 25 km of Srinagar by 26 October.

Accession (26 October 1947)

Hari Singh fled from Srinagar to Jammu on 25 October. On 26 October 1947, he signed the Instrument of Accession to India. V.P. Menon flew to Jammu, secured the signature, and returned to Delhi.

Indian Airlift (27 October 1947)

On the morning of 27 October 1947, Indian Army troops were airlifted to Srinagar — the first Indian air-landed combat operation. The 1st Sikh Battalion under Lt. Col. Dewan Ranjit Rai arrived first; Rai was killed defending Srinagar. Sheikh Abdullah's National Conference volunteers fought alongside Indian troops.

First Indo-Pakistani War (1947-48)

The First Indo-Pakistani War lasted from October 1947 to December 1948. Indian forces pushed back the tribal raiders and recovered most of the Kashmir Valley but could not retake the western and northern areas. The war ended with the UN-brokered ceasefire on 1 January 1949, leaving Kashmir divided along the Cease Fire Line (later Line of Control).

Article 370

The Indian Constitution's Article 370 (added 17 October 1949) gave J&K special autonomy:

• Indian Parliament could legislate on Defence, External Affairs, Communications, and "ancillary subjects" — needing concurrence of J&K government.
• Other Indian laws applied only with J&K assent.
• Article 35A (1954) reserved special rights for "permanent residents".

Article 370 was abrogated on 5 August 2019 by the Modi Government; J&K was simultaneously bifurcated into two Union Territories: Jammu & Kashmir (with Legislature) and Ladakh (without). Effective 31 October 2019.

§8 — Goa Liberation 1961

Goa Liberation (December 1961)

The Portuguese colonies of Goa, Daman, Diu, Dadra, Nagar Haveli were not princely states but European colonies — they remained Portuguese after India's 1947 independence. Salazar's Portugal refused to negotiate.

Pre-1961 Resistance

• 1946 — Ram Manohar Lohia's Goa civil disobedience.
• 1954 — Dadra and Nagar Haveli liberated by armed Indian volunteers (United Front of Goans, Azad Gomantak Dal).
• 1955 — peaceful Indian satyagrahis fired upon at Goa border (15 satyagrahis killed).
• India refused to allow Portuguese troops to use Indian airspace.
• 1956 — International Court of Justice rejected India's territorial claim but recognised Indian sovereignty over surrounding areas.

Operation Vijay (December 1961)

By 1961, after years of Portuguese intransigence, Nehru ordered Operation Vijay:

• 17-19 December 1961: Indian Army (under Lt. Gen K.S. Thimayya), Navy, Air Force operation.
• About 30,000 Indian forces entered Goa, Daman, Diu.
• Portuguese resistance collapsed within 36 hours.
• 19 December 1961 — Portuguese Governor General Manuel Vassalo e Silva surrendered.
• 30 Indian and 30 Portuguese killed; 4,668 Portuguese soldiers captured.

Aftermath

• Goa, Daman, Diu became Indian Union Territories.
• Goa attained statehood on 30 May 1987.
• Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli merged in 2020 (Union Territory).
• Pondicherry (French) had been transferred earlier — 1954 (de facto); 1962 (de jure) by the Treaty of Cession.

§9 — Dar & JVP Committees

Dar Commission (1948) & JVP Committee (1948-49)

The demand for reorganisation of states on linguistic basis dated to the 1920 Nagpur Congress, which had reorganised Provincial Congress Committees on linguistic lines. After Independence, the issue became live.

Dar Commission (1948)

The Linguistic Provinces Commission under Justice S.K. Dar (Allahabad HC) was appointed by the Constituent Assembly President in June 1948 to examine the linguistic provinces demand. The Dar Commission's report (December 1948) opposed the immediate creation of linguistic states, arguing it would be administratively chaotic and would weaken national unity.

JVP Committee (1948-49)

To appease the disappointed linguistic groups (especially Telugus), the Congress appointed the JVP Committee (named after its three members — Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, and Pattabhi Sitaramayya hence P) in December 1948. Reported April 1949.

The JVP Report also did not favour immediate linguistic reorganisation — citing security concerns, communal tensions, and the need to consolidate national unity. The recommendation: postpone reorganisation; deal with cases on individual merit.

§10 — States Reorganisation Commission & Act 1956

States Reorganisation Commission & Act 1956

Andhra State (1953) — The Trigger

The Telugu-speaking demand for separation from Madras Presidency was the most insistent. Potti Sriramulu (a Gandhian) began a fast-unto-death on 19 October 1952 demanding a separate Andhra state. He died on the 58th day, 15 December 1952. Riots erupted across Andhra. Nehru's government conceded; the Andhra State Act 1953 created Andhra State (Telugu-speaking districts of Madras Presidency) on 1 October 1953. Curnool was the first capital.

Sriramulu's sacrifice and Andhra's creation made it impossible to refuse other linguistic demands.

States Reorganisation Commission (December 1953)

Nehru appointed the States Reorganisation Commission in December 1953:

• Justice Saiyid Fazl Ali — Chairman.
• K.M. Panikkar — historian, diplomat.
• H.N. Kunzru — Liberal Party leader.

Report (October 1955)

The SRC submitted its report on 30 September 1955 (published October 1955). It broadly endorsed linguistic reorganisation while preserving certain special arrangements:

The Commission had 4 main principles for reorganisation:

1. Preservation and strengthening of national unity and integrity.
2. Linguistic and cultural homogeneity.
3. Financial, economic, administrative considerations.
4. Planning and welfare of the people.

States Reorganisation Act 1956

Enacted on 31 August 1956; came into force 1 November 1956. Reorganised India into 14 states + 6 Union Territories:

14 States

1. Andhra Pradesh (Andhra State + Telugu-speaking districts of Hyderabad State / Telangana)
2. Assam
3. Bihar
4. Bombay (Marathi-Gujarati combined; later split 1960)
5. Jammu & Kashmir
6. Kerala (Travancore-Cochin + Malabar district from Madras + Kasargod from S. Kanara)
7. Madhya Pradesh (consolidated several Hindi-speaking states)
8. Madras (now Tamil Nadu)
9. Mysore (Kannada-speaking; later renamed Karnataka 1973)
10. Orissa (now Odisha)
11. Punjab (Punjab + PEPSU; included future Haryana & HP)
12. Rajasthan
13. Uttar Pradesh
14. West Bengal

6 Union Territories

1. Delhi
2. Himachal Pradesh
3. Andaman & Nicobar Islands
4. Laccadive, Minicoy & Amindivi (Lakshadweep)
5. Manipur
6. Tripura

Constitutional Changes

The Act required the 7th Constitutional Amendment 1956:

• Abolished the Part A, B, C, D classification of states (which had distinguished erstwhile princely states).
• Created a uniform category of states + UTs.
• Abolished the office of Rajpramukh (which had given special status to former princes governing the Part B states).

§11 — Post-1956 Changes

Post-1956 Changes

Current Status (2024)

India has 28 states and 8 Union Territories as of 2024.

§12 — FAQs

FAQs