American Revolution
& Independence (1775–1783)
The first successful colonial independence movement — and the template for modern democratic constitutionalism.
Thirteen Colonies & British Rule
By the mid-18th century, Britain had thirteen colonies on the eastern seaboard of North America — from Massachusetts in the north to Georgia in the south. These colonies had developed substantial self-governing assemblies over 150 years. They were prosperous, literate, and steeped in Enlightenment thought from Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.
The Seven Years' War (1756–63) — known in North America as the French and Indian War — ended with Britain's massive victory over France but also massive debt. Britain decided the colonies should help pay for their own defence through taxes. The colonists, who had no seats in the Westminster Parliament, responded with the rallying cry: "No taxation without representation."
Causes of the Revolution
| Act / Event | Year | Colonial Response |
|---|---|---|
| Proclamation of 1763 (no westward expansion) | 1763 | Resentment; colonists wanted western lands |
| Stamp Act (tax on printed materials) | 1765 | Stamp Act Congress; "No taxation without representation" |
| Townshend Acts (import duties) | 1767 | Boycott of British goods |
| Boston Massacre (soldiers fire on crowd) | 5 Mar 1770 | Propaganda tool; Paul Revere's engraving |
| Tea Act + Boston Tea Party | 1773 | 342 chests of tea dumped in Boston Harbour |
| Intolerable Acts (punish Massachusetts) | 1774 | First Continental Congress Sep–Oct 1774 |
| Battles of Lexington and Concord | 19 Apr 1775 | "Shot heard round the world" — war begins |
Key Events 1775–1783
- Second Continental Congress (May 1775): Named George Washington commander-in-chief of the Continental Army.
- Common Sense (Jan 1776): Thomas Paine's pamphlet — argued for complete independence in plain language; 500,000 copies sold; crucial in mobilising public opinion.
- Declaration of Independence (4 July 1776): Drafted by Jefferson; adopted by Congress.
- Battle of Saratoga (Oct 1777): Turning point — American victory convinced France to ally with the colonists (French Treaty of Alliance, Feb 1778); Spain and Netherlands followed.
- Valley Forge (winter 1777–78): Washington's army endured starvation and cold; Baron von Steuben (Prussian) drilled the army into a professional force.
- Yorktown (Oct 1781): British General Cornwallis surrendered to Washington — effectively ended the war.
- Treaty of Paris (3 Sept 1783): Britain recognised American independence; ceded territory east of the Mississippi River.
Declaration of Independence, 4 July 1776
Drafted primarily by Thomas Jefferson and adopted by the Second Continental Congress on 4 July 1776, the Declaration asserted:
- All men are created equal (though in practice this excluded women, enslaved people, and Native Americans).
- They are endowed with unalienable rights: Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness (Jefferson's adaptation of Locke's "Life, Liberty and Property").
- Governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed.
- When a government destroys these rights, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.
The Declaration drew directly on John Locke's Second Treatise of Government (1689) and Rousseau's Social Contract. It became a model for the French Declaration of Rights of Man (1789) and influenced independence movements across Latin America, Asia, and Africa.
Articles of Confederation → US Constitution
After independence, the colonies operated under the Articles of Confederation (1781) — a weak central government with no power to tax or enforce laws. The Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia (May–Sept 1787) drafted a new constitution, ratified in 1788 and effective 4 March 1789.
Key features of the US Constitution relevant to UPSC:
- Federalism — division of powers between federal and state governments; influenced India's federal structure.
- Separation of powers — three independent branches (Executive/President, Legislature/Congress, Judiciary/Supreme Court); drew on Montesquieu.
- Bill of Rights (first 10 amendments, 1791) — freedom of speech, religion, press, right to bear arms, right against unreasonable search; inspired India's Fundamental Rights.
- Judicial review — established by Marbury v. Madison (1803); the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional. India's Supreme Court similarly holds this power.
Previous Year Questions
Q. The phrase "No taxation without representation" was the rallying cry of:
(a) French Third Estate against Louis XVI
(b) American colonists against British Parliamentary taxes
(c) Indian nationalists against British economic policies
(d) Irish nationalists in the 19th century
Answer: (b) — This was the core grievance of American colonists who were taxed by the Westminster Parliament despite having no elected representatives in it.
Q. Consider the following pairs — Document: Author:
1. Declaration of Independence — Benjamin Franklin
2. Common Sense — Thomas Paine
3. Federalist Papers — Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3
Answer: (b) — The Declaration of Independence was drafted by Thomas Jefferson (not Franklin). Paine wrote Common Sense (1776). The Federalist Papers (1787–88) were written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay under the pen name "Publius."